Preface xv
Acknowledgments xix
About the Author xxi
Part I Foundations of Crime Analysis 1
Chapter 1 Crime Analysis and the Profession 3
Definition of Crime Analysis 3
Definitions of GIS and Crime Mapping 5
History of Crime Analysis 6
United States: 1900-1970 6
United States: 1970-2000 7
History of Crime Mapping 9
United States: 1900-1970 10
United States: 1970-2000 11
Research on Crime Analysis and Crime Mapping: 2000 to Present 12
Key Challenges for Crime Analysis 15
Future of Crime Analysis 16
The Crime Analyst Profession 17
Crime Analyst Qualifications and Job Descriptions 18
Crime Analyst I 18
Crime Analyst II 18
Crime Analyst III 18
Specialty Crime Analyst 19
Crime Analysis Supervisor 20
Federal Analysts 20
Private Sector Analysts 21
Positions Associated with Crime Analysis 21
Crime Analysis Units and Staffing 22
Crime Analysis Unit Strategic Planning 23
Real-Time Crime and Fusion Centers 25
Crime Analyst Profiles 28
Amanda Bruner 28
Cheryl Davis 29
Brian Kent 31
Tara Shafher 32
Ryan Spizman 33
Detective Oscar Velez 33
Summary Points 34
Discussion Exercises 38
Chapter 2 Theoretical Foundations of Crime Analysis 41
Environmental Criminology 41
Problem Analysis Triangle 42
Rational Choice Perspective 44
Crime Pattern Theory 45
Routine Activity Approach 49
Law of Crime Concentration 50
Repeat Victimization, Near Repeats, and the 80/20 Rule 51
Situational Crime Prevention 53
Displacement and Diffusion of Benefits 55
Opportunity 57
Summary Points 57
Discussion Exercises 59
Chapter 3 Evidence-Based Policing and Problem-Solving 61
Link Between Crime Analysis and Crime Reduction 61
Role of Crime Analysis in Proactive Policing 62
Standard Model of Policing 63
Place-Based Approach 64
Person-Focused Approach 65
Problem-Solving Approach 66
Community-Based Approach 67
Other Approaches 70
Conclusion 73
Problem Stratification: A Framework for Crime Analysis 74
Immediate Problems 75
Short-Term Problems 75
Long-Term Problems 76
The SARA Problem-Solving Process 78
Summary Points 80
Discussion Exercises 84
Part II Crime Analysis Process, Data, and Products 85
Chapter 4 Crime Analysis Process and Types 87
The Crime Analysis Process 87
Data Collection and Management 88
Data Scanning and Querying 90
Data Analysis 90
Data Modification Subcycle 91
Information Dissemination 92
Response 92
Feedback and Evaluation 93
Types of Crime Analysis 93
Crime Intelligence Analysis 93
Tactical Crime Analysis 100
Strategic Crime Analysis 103
Administrative Crime Analysis 104
Crime Mapping by Type of Analysis 105
Summary Points 106
Discussion Exercises 108
Chapter 5 Crime Analysis Data and Technology 109
Key Terms 109
Data Matrix 109
Database 110
Geographic Data 110
Tabular Data 111
Secondary Data 111
Primary Data 111
Law Enforcements Systems and Technology 111
Computer-Aided Dispatch System 112
Records Management System 112
Agency Management System 112
Information-Sharing Platforms 113
Jail Management System (JMS) 113
Criminal Justice Information Services (CJIS) 114
National Crime Information Center (NCIC) 114
Geographic Data System 114
Regional Data Sharing 114
Other Software and Technology 115
Crime Analysis Hardware and Software Considerations 116
Data Used in Crime Analysis 118
Calls for Service 118
Crime Incidents 118
Arrests 120
Traffic Collisions 120
Other Databases 122
Open Source Information 124
Government Agency Sources 124
Primary Data Collection 125
Data Considerations 126
"Reported" Activity 126
Federal Crime Data Standards 127
Using the Right Data 137
Data Integrity and Ethical Concerns 138
Summary Points 141
Discussion Exercises 144
Chapter 6 Geographic Data and Crime Mapping 147
Geographic Data 147
Vector Data 147
Raster Data 151
Projections and Scale 151
Getting Events on a Map 152
Descriptive Crime Mapping 154
Single-Symbol Mapping 154
Buffers 155
Graduated Mapping 155
Chart Mapping 156
Interactive Crime Mapping 158
Methods for Descriptive Crime Mapping 159
By Category 159
By Statistical Classification 160
By Manual Method 166
Classification Guidelines and Summary 168
Analytical Crime Mapping: Density Mapping 168
Summary Points 172
Discussion Exercises 174
Chapter 7 Crime Analysis Products and Communication 177
Two Main Purposes of Crime Analysis Products 177
Types of Crime Analysis Products 180
Guidelines for Crime Analysis Products 189
General Guidelines 189
Guidelines for Memoranda 192
Guidelines for Tables and Charts 193
Guidelines for Maps 196
Guidelines for Presentations 198
Communication of Crime Analysis Results 199
Audiences of Crime Analysis Products 200
Disseminating Crime Analysis Products 202
Summary Points 205
Discussion Exercises 207
Part III Tactical Crime Analysis 209
Chapter 8 Calls-for-Service Data and Repeat Incident Analysis 211
Calls-for-Service Data and Variables 211
Using Calls-for-Service Data for Analysis 217
Repeat Incident Analysis 220
Repeat Incident Analysis Components 221
Report Format 223
Agency Examples 224
Matthews, NC Police Department 224
Delaware State Police 225
Washoe County, NV Sheriff's Office 227
Port St. Lucie, FL Police Department 228
Evaluation of Police Response to Repeat Incidents 230
Summary Points 237
Discussion Exercises 238
Chapter 9 Crime Data and Pattern Analysis 239
Crime Pattern Data and Variables 239
Crime Report Data 239
Field Information 245
Crime Pattern Analysis 246
Types of Crime Patterns 248
Initial Crime Pattern Identification 250
Spatial Analysis of Patterns 255
Pattern Finalization 257
Identifying Investigative Leads and Using Field Intelligence 260
Clearing Cases 263
Summary Points 264
Discussion Exercises 267
Chapter 10 Persons and Property Crime Patterns 271
Identifying Meaningful Crime Patterns 271
Nature of Persons Crime Patterns 272
Robbery Crime Patterns 274
Series, Pharmacy Robberies 275
Series, Cell Phone Robberies 276
Series, Home Invasion Robberies 276
Series, Street Robberies 277
Nondomestic Aggravated Assault Crime Patterns 277
Micro-Time Hot Spot, Aggravated Assaults and Shootings 278
Sexual Crime-Related Patterns 279
Series, Indecent Exposures 280
Series, Lewd and Lascivious/Sexual Batteries 281
Nature of Property Crime Patterns 282
Residential Burglary Patterns 283
Micro-Time Hot Spot, Residential Burglaries 283
Micro-Time Hot Spot, Residential Burglaries 284
Hot Setting, Burglaries of Sheds at Apartment Complexes 284
Series, Residential Burglaries and Thefts from Vehicles 286
Commercial Burglary Patterns 287
Series, Commercial Burglaries 287
Series, Commercial Burglaries at Restaurants 288
Hot Setting, Commercial Burglaries at Churches 289
Theft from Vehicle Patterns 289
Micro-Time Hot Spot, Residential Thefts from Vehicles 290
Micro-Time Hot Spot, Residential Thefts from Vehicles 291
Series, Thefts from Vehicles at Retail Parking Lots 291
Hot Setting, Thefts from Vehicles 292
Micro-Time Hot Spot, Thefts of/from Vehicles 293
Hot Place, Thefts from Vehicles at the YMCA 293
Hot Setting, Thefts from Vehicles in Parks 294
Motor Vehicle Theft Patterns 295
Series, Auto Thefts of "Racing" Vehicles 295
Hot Product, Motor Vehicle Thefts of ATVs 296
Micro-Time Hot Spot, Motor Vehicle Thefts and Trailers 296
Hot Product Patterns 296
Hot Product, Packages Left on Residential Doorsteps 297
Hot Product, Trailers 298
Series, Construction Site Burglaries and Thefts of Appliances 298
Hot Product, Catalytic Converters from Buses 299
Series, Graffiti of Stop Signs 300
Summary Points 302
Discussion Exercises 303
Chapter 11 Crime Pattern Bulletins, Response, and Evaluation 305
Pattern Bulletin Components 305
Evidence-Based Police Response 311
Crime Pattern Response Evaluation Process 313
Bulletin Examples and Police Response 314
Persons Crime 315
Armed Robberies: Dayton, OH Police Department Bulletin 316
Robberies: Fort Myers, FL Police Department Bulletin 317
Property Crime 317
Thefts from Vehicles: Putnam County, FL Sheriff's Office Bulletin 319
Thefts from Vehicles: Washoe County, NV Sheriff's Office Bulletin 319
Catalytic Converter Thefts: Port St. Lucie, FL Police Department Bulletin 322
Summary Points 324
Discussion Exercises 324
Part IV Strategic Crime Analysis 327
Chapter 12 Statistics and Trends 329
Basic Statistics Used in Crime Analysis 329
Frequency and Distribution 329
Cross-Tabulation 330
Percentage 331
Cross-Tabulation Percentage 332
Percentile 332
Percentage of Change 333
Rate 335
Mean and Standard Deviation 338
Time Series Analysis 340
Exact Time and Day of the Week 340
Weighted Time Span Analysis 347
Statistical Reporting and Trend Analysis 351
Examining Categories 353
Understanding Distributions 353
Statistical Maps 355
Temporal Analysis 355
Monthly Trend Examples 356
Yearly Trend Examples 363
Summary Points 366
Discussion Exercises 368
Chapter 13 Long-Term Problem Analysis, Part I 371
What Is the Nature of the Problem? 372
The Problem Environment and Behavior 373
Three Stages of Problem Events 376
Long-Term Problem Types 377
How Prevalent Is the Problem? 378
Frequency, Distribution, and Percentage 379
Rate 381
Mean and Standard Deviation 384
When Is the Problem Happening? 385
Summary Points 393
Discussion Exercises 394
Chapter 14 Long-Term Problem Analysis, Part II 397
Where Is the Problem Occurring? 397
Identifying and Analyzing Problem Locations 398
Identifying and Analyzing Problem Areas 406
Who Are the Offenders? 415
Problem Offender Identification 415
Problem Offender Analysis 419
Who Are the Victims and Targets? 420
Why Is the Problem Occurring? 422
Summary Points 425
Discussion Exercises 425
Chapter 15 Evaluation of Long-Term Problems and Crime Reduction Goals 427
Problem Response Development 427
Assessment of Problem Responses 431
Assessment Methods 432
Individual Problem Location/Area Assessment 435
Multiple Problem Comparison 438
Evaluation of Crime Reduction Goals 438
Monthly Goal Evaluation and Monitoring 441
Comparisons for Goal Evaluation 444
Summary Points 447
Discussion Exercises 448
Glossary 451
References 463
Index 471