Author Biography xi

Preface xiii

1 Introduction to the Basic Concepts 1

1.1 What Is a Microchip? 1

1.2 Ohm’s Law and Resistivity 1

1.3 Conductor, Insulator, and Semiconductor 5

References 5

2 Brief Introduction of Theories 7

2.1 The Birth of Quantum Mechanics 7

2.2 Energy Band (Band) 11

References 15

3 Early Radio Communication 17

3.1 Telegraph Technology 17

3.2 Electron Tube 19

References 22

4 Basic Knowledge of Electric Circuits (Circuits) 23

4.1 Electric Circuits and the Components 23

4.2 Electric Field 26

4.3 Magnetic Field 28

4.4 Alternating Current 30

5 Further Discussion of Semiconductors and Diodes 33

5.1 Semiconductor Energy Band 33

5.2 Semiconductor Doping 36

5.3 Semiconductor Diode 42

References 46

6 Transistor and Integrated Circuit 47

6.1 Bipolar Transistor 47

6.2 Junction Field Effect Transistor 49

6.3 Metal?Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor 52

6.4 Metal?Insulator?Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor 55

References 60

7 The Development History of Semiconductor Industry 61

7.1 The Instruction of Semiconductor Products and Structures 61

7.2 A Brief History of the Semiconductor Industry 63

7.3 Changes in the Size of Transistors and SiliconWafers 65

7.4 Clean Room 67

7.5 Planar Process 71

References 75

8 Semiconductor Photonic Devices 77

8.1 Light-Emitting Devices and Light-Emitting Principles 77

8.2 Light-Emitting Diode (LED) 82

8.3 Semiconductor Diode Laser 88

8.3.1 Resonant Cavity 89

8.3.2 Reflection and Refraction of Light 91

8.3.3 Heterojunction Materials 93

8.3.4 Population Inversion and Threshold Current Density 94

References 96

9 Semiconductor Light Detection and Photocell 97

9.1 Digital Camera and CCD 97

9.2 Photoconductor 100

9.3 Transistor Laser 101

9.4 Solar Cell 105

References 106

10 Manufacture of Silicon Wafer 109

10.1 From Quartzite Ore to Polysilicon 110

10.2 Chemical Reaction 113

10.3 Pull Single Crystal 115

10.4 Polishing and Slicing 116

References 123

11 Basic Knowledges of Process 125

11.1 The Structure of Integrated Circuit (IC) 125

11.2 Resolution of Optical System 128

11.3 Why Plasma Used in the Process 131

References 133

12 Photolithography (Lithography) 135

12.1 The Steps of Lithography Process 135

12.1.1 Cleaning 135

12.1.2 Dehydration Bake 136

12.1.3 Photoresist Coating 138

12.1.4 Soft Bake 141

12.1.5 Alignment and Exposure 141

12.1.6 Developing 145

12.1.7 Inspection 146

12.1.8 Hard Bake 147

12.1.9 Descum 148

12.2 Alignment Mark (Mark) Design on the Photomask 152

12.3 Contemporary Photolithography Equipment Technologies 156

References 159

13 Dielectric Films Growth 161

13.1 The Growth of Silicon Dioxide Film 162

13.1.1 Thermal Oxidation Process of SiO2 162

13.1.2 LTO Process 164

13.1.3 PECVD Process of Silicon Dioxide 166

13.1.4 TEOS + O3 Deposition Using APCVD System 167

13.2 The Growth of Silicon Nitride Film 168

13.2.1 LPCVD 168

13.2.2 PECVD Process of Silicon Nitride 171

13.3 Atomic Layer Deposition Technique 174

References 177

14 Introduction of Etching and RIE System 179

14.1 Wet Etching 179

14.2 RIE System for Dry Etching 182

14.2.1 RIE Process Flow and Equipment Structure 182

14.2.2 Process Chamber 184

14.2.3 Vacuum Pumps 186

14.2.4 RF Power Supply (Source) and Matching Network (Matchwork) 187

14.2.5 Gas Cylinder and Mass Flow Controller (MFC) 189

14.2.6 Heater and Coolant 194

References 196

15 Dry Etching 197

15.1 The Etch Profile of RIE 197

15.1.1 Case 1 198

15.1.2 Case 2 201

15.2 Etching Rate of RIE 203

15.3 Dry Etching of III?V Semiconductors and Metals 206

15.4 Etch Profile Control 207

15.4.1 Influence of the PR Opening Shape on the Etch Profile 208

15.4.2 The Effect of Carbon on Etching Rate and Profile 209

15.5 Other Issues 211

15.5.1 The Differences Between RIE and PECVD 211

15.5.2 The Difference Between Si and SiO2 Dry Etching 214

15.6 Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) Technique and Bosch Process 215

15.6.1 Inductively Coupled Plasma Technique 216

15.6.2 Bosch Process 219

References 223

16 Metal Processes 225

16.1 Thermal Evaporation Technique 225

16.2 Electron Beam Evaporation Technique 227

16.3 Magnetron Sputtering Deposition Technique 231

16.4 The Main Differences Between Electron Beam (Thermal) Evaporation and Sputtering Deposition 234

16.5 Metal Lift-off Process 235

16.6 Metal Selection and Annealing Technology 241

16.6.1 The Selection of Metals 241

16.6.2 Metal Annealing 242

References 243

17 Doping Processes 245

17.1 Basic Introduction of Doping 245

17.2 Basic Principles of Diffusion 246

17.3 Thermal Diffusion 247

17.4 Diffusion and Redistribution of Impurities in SiO2 248

17.5 Minimum Thickness of SiO2 Masking Film 250

17.6 The Distribution of Impurities Under the SiO2 Masking Film 251

17.7 Diffusion Impurity Sources 252

17.8 Parameters of the Diffusion Layer 255

17.9 Four-Point Probe Sheet Resistance Measurement 256

17.10 Ion Implantation Process 257

17.11 Theoretical Analysis of Ion Implantation 259

17.12 Impurity Distribution after Implantation 260

17.13 Type and Dose of Implanted Impurities 262

17.14 The Minimum Thickness of Masking Film 263

17.15 Annealing Process 264

17.16 Buried Implantation 266

17.16.1 Implantation through Masking Film 266

17.16.2 SOI Manufacture 267

References 270

18 Process Control Monitor, Packaging, and the Others 271

18.1 Dielectric Film Quality Inspection 271

18.2 Ohmic Contact Test 273

18.3 Metal-to-Metal Contact 274

18.4 Conductive Channel Control 277

18.5 Chip Testing 278

18.6 Dicing 279

18.7 Packaging 280

18.8 Equipment Operation Range 281

18.9 Low-k and High-k Dielectrics 282

18.9.1 Copper Interconnection and Low-k Dielectrics 283

18.9.2 Quantum Tunneling Effect and High-k Dielectrics 286

18.10 End 291

References 293

Index 295