List of Contributors xiii

About the Editor xvii

Preface xix

List of Abbreviations xxi

1 Microalgae and Food Applications 1

Isabella Buschiazzo, Sofia Barrios, and Patricia Lema

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Applications of Microalgal Extracts 4

1.2.1 Nutritional Fortification: Proteins and Peptides 5

1.2.2 Microalgae Polysaccharides: Properties and Gut Health 5

1.2.3 Lipids and Essential Fatty Acids 7

1.2.4 Natural Colorants and Bioactive Pigments 8

1.2.5 Vitamins in Microalgae: Nutritional Profile and Applications 11

1.3 Applications of Microalgal Biomass in the Food Industry 11

1.3.1 Bakery and Confectionery Products 13

1.3.2 Pasta Products Enriched With Microalgae 15

1.3.3 Dairy Products Enriched With Microalgae 16

1.3.3.1 Yogurts and Fermented Milk 16

1.3.3.2 Cheeses and Analogs 17

1.3.3.3 Ice Creams 18

1.3.4 Meat Analogs Enriched With Microalgae 19

1.3.5 Fortified and Fermented Beverages With Microalgae 21

1.4 Food Safety and Regulation Considerations for Microalgae 23

1.5 Conclusions 25

Conflict of Interest 25

Acknowledgments 25

References 25

2 Fundamentals About Microalgae 41

Marco Shizuo Owatari, Sérgio Leandro Araújo-Silva, Michele Cristina Vieira, Rafael Garcia Lopes, and Roberto Bianchini Derner

2.1 Fundamental Aspects 41

2.2 Fundamental Physiological Mechanisms 43

2.3 Fundamental Physiological Aspects of Microalgae 47

2.3.1 Light 48

2.3.2 Carbon and pH 50

2.3.3 Nutrients 50

2.3.4 Temperature 51

2.4 Fundamental About Cultivation 52

2.4.1 Microalgae Culture Collections 53

2.4.2 Cultivation Systems 54

2.5 Conclusions 59

Conflict of Interest 59

Acknowledgments 60

References 60

3 Extraction of Biomolecules From Microalgae 69

Guilherme Dallarmi Sorita, Wilson Daniel Caicedo Chacon, Eduardo Leonarski,Mayara Kuasnei, and Juliane Machado da Silveira

3.1 Introduction 69

3.2 Chemical Composition of Microalgae 71

3.3 Upstream Processing: Cultivation and Pretreatment 73

3.3.1 Microalgae Cultivation 73

3.3.2 Harvesting and Drying 74

3.3.3 Pretreatment 75

3.4 Extraction of Biomolecules From Microalgae Biomass 76

3.4.1 Conventional Methods 76

3.4.1.1 ME for Lipids and Phytochemicals Recovery 76

3.4.1.2 SOX for Lipids and Phytochemicals Recovery 81

3.4.1.3 AE for Protein Recovery 81

3.4.1.4 HWE for Polysaccharides Recovery 82

3.4.2 Green and Emerging Technologies 83

3.4.2.1 IL, DES, and Natural Deep Eutectic Solvent Extraction 83

3.4.2.2 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 84

3.4.2.3 Microwave-assisted Extraction 84

3.4.2.4 UAE or High-intensity Ultrasound (HIUS) 85

3.4.2.5 Combined Technologies 85

3.4.3 Microalgal Biorefinery: Sequential Extraction for Maximized Biomass Utilization 86

3.5 Purification and Characterization 88

3.5.1 Proteins 88

3.5.2 Lipids 89

3.5.3 Carbohydrates 89

3.5.4 Pigments and Phenolic Compounds 90

3.6 Large-scale Microalgae Production and Main Commercial Products 90

3.7 Conclusions 91

Conflict of Interest 92

Acknowledgments 92

References 92

4 Pigments Isolated From Microalgae and Food Applications 103

Lina Maria Rayo-Mendez and Jaiber H. Rodriguez-Llanos

4.1 Introduction 103

4.2 Major Classes of Microalgal Pigments: Carotenoids, Chlorophylls, and Phycobilins 104

4.2.1 Carotenoids (Yellow, Orange, and Red Colors): Carotenes and Xanthophylls 104

4.2.1.1 Carotenes: β -Carotene and Lycopene 105

4.2.1.2 Xanthophylls: Astaxanthin, Lutein, and Zeaxanthin 107

4.2.1.3 Chlorophylls 110

4.2.1.4 Phycobiliproteins 113

4.3 Recent Advances on Microalgae-derived Pigments and Food Applications 113

4.3.1 Food Applications of Microalgae Pigments 114

4.4 Conclusions 119

Conflict of Interest 119

Acknowledgments 119

References 120

5 Food Applications of Proteins and Peptides Isolated From Microalgae 131

Malik Adil Nawaz, Deepak Kasote, and Hafiz Suleria

5.1 Introduction 131

5.2 Microalgae Protein 132

5.2.1 Amino Acid Profile 133

5.2.2 Functional Properties 134

5.2.3 Digestibility and Bioavailability 138

5.2.4 Bioactive Properties 139

5.2.5 Antioxidant Activity 139

5.2.6 Antimicrobial and Antiviral Properties 141

5.2.7 Anti-inflammatory Properties 142

5.3 Protein Extraction Techniques 142

5.3.1 Mechanical Extraction 142

5.3.1.1 Bead Milling 142

5.3.1.2 High-pressure Homogenization 144

5.3.1.3 Chemical Extraction 144

5.3.1.4 Enzyme-assisted Extraction 145

5.3.1.5 Ultrasound-assisted Extraction 145

5.4 Potential Food Applications 146

5.4.1 Microalgae Protein in Feed Formulations 147

5.4.2 Challenges Associated With Commercialization 148

5.5 Conclusions 149

Conflict of Interest 149

Acknowledgments 149

References 149

6 Microalgal Lipids for Food Applications 159

Schonna R. Manning, Yilan Lin, Florence Onifade, and Sutirtha Sengupta

6.1 Introduction 159

6.2 Glycerolipids 160

6.2.1 Fatty Acids 161

6.2.2 Acylglycerols 163

6.2.3 Phospholipids 164

6.2.4 Glycolipids 166

6.3 Pigments 167

6.3.1 Chlorophylls 170

6.3.2 Carotenoids 170

6.3.2.1 Carotenes 171

6.3.2.2 Xanthophylls 171

6.4 Hydrocarbons and Related Esters 172

6.4.1 Alkanes 172

6.4.2 Alkenes 173

6.4.3 Sterols 174

6.4.4 Waxes 175

6.5 Future Trends 176

6.6 Conclusions 177

Conflict of Interest 177

Acknowledgments 177

References 178

7 Bioactive Molecules Isolated From Microalgae and Food Applications 185

Oscar Danilo Guerra Ceballos, Guilherme Dallarmi Sorita, Dumas Gabriel Oviedo Pereira, Javier Darío Hoyos Leyva, Johan Esteban Villamil Galindo, and Wilson Daniel Caicedo Chacon

7.1 Introduction 185

7.2 Microalgae as a Source of Bioactive Molecules 186

7.2.1 Nutritional and Functional Potential of Microalgae 186

7.2.2 Characterization and Classification of Food-relevant Microalgae 187

7.2.3 Main Genera and Species Rich in Bioactive Compounds 188

7.3 Main Bioactive Molecules Isolated from Microalgae 189

7.4 Bioactive Properties of Molecules Isolated From Microalgae 194

7.5 Extraction and Purification Methods for Bioactive Molecules 196

7.5.1 Physical Methods 199

7.5.2 Chemical Methods 199

7.5.3 Physicochemical Methods 200

7.5.4 Enzymatic Methods 200

7.6 Food Applications of Bioactive Molecules From Microalgae 201

7.6.1 Bakery and Pasta Products 201

7.6.2 Dairy Products and Ice Cream 202

7.6.3 Snacks, Cookies, and Smoothies 203

7.6.4 Biocontrol Agents and Natural Preservatives 203

7.6.5 Functional Ingredients and Supplements 203

7.7 Challenges and Future Perspectives 203

7.8 Safety, Regulation, and Technological Challenge 204

7.9 Conclusions 205

Conflict of Interest 206

Acknowledgments 206

References 206

8 Food Applications of Volatile Organic Compounds Isolated From Microalgae 215

Richard Luan Silva Machado, Darissa Alves Dutra, Adriane Terezinha Schneider,Eduarda Funari Machado, Mariany Costa Deprá, Leila Queiroz Zepka, and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes

8.1 Introduction 215

8.2 Biosynthesis of VOCs in Microalgae 217

8.3 Factors Affecting VOC Production in Microalgae 221

8.4 Food Applications of VOCs 223

8.5 Acceptance and Future Perspectives of Microalgae Volatile Compounds 225

8.6 Conclusions 227

Conflict of Interest 228

Acknowledgments 228

References 228

9 Toxicological Aspects and International Regulations of Microalgae Ingredients for Food Applications 235

Diego Castro Squinello, Talita Ribeiro Gagliardi, and Germán Ayala Valencia

9.1 Introduction 235

9.2 Toxicological Aspects of Microalgae Ingredients 237

9.3 International Regulations 239

9.4 Conclusions 242

Conflict of Interest 242

Acknowledgments 242

References 242

10 Consumer Acceptance and Willingness to Pay for Microalgae-containing Foods: Sensory, Labeling, and Segmentation Insights 247

Nicolas M. Bogdanoff and Fátima Díaz

10.1 Introduction 247

10.2 Methods 248

10.3 Results and Discussion 250

10.3.1 Determinants of Perceived Value: Nutrition, Health, Sustainability 250

10.3.1.1 Taste First: Inclusion Thresholds and Matrix Fit 250

10.3.1.2 Price: Premium Threshold and Trade-offs 250

10.3.1.3 Health and Sustainability: Signals That “Open” WTP 250

10.3.1.4 Segmentation: Familiarity, Neophobia, and Values 250

10.3.2 Sensory Constraints and Formulation Levers 252

10.3.3 Psychological and Cultural Barriers 254

10.3.3.1 Food and Tech Neophobia: Psychological Threshold of Entry 254

10.3.3.2 Familiarity and Cultural Capital 254

10.3.3.3 Prone Versus Reluctant Profiles 255

10.3.3.4 Cultural Design Implications 255

10.3.4 Market Signaling: Labels, Claims, Communication 256

10.3.4.1 Checklist: Defensible Claims and “No-go” Phrases 257

10.3.5 Regional Heterogeneity and Demand Segments 257

10.3.6 Technology Enablers for Acceptance 258

10.3.7 Regulatory and Safety Signals 259

10.4 Extended Evidence Table (2022–2025) 260

10.5 Conceptual Framework 260

10.6 Implications for R&D and Industry 260

10.7 Limitations and Research Agenda 265

10.8 Conclusions 266

Conflict of Interest 266

Acknowledgments 266

References 266

Index 269