List of Figures xi
List of Tables xvii
List of Contributors xix
About the Editors xxi
Prologue xxv
Abbreviations xxxi

1 Impetus for This Book 1
David J. Ostrach, Lawrence A. Kapustka, and Cameron A. Irvine

2 Foundations of Environmental Science 5
Lawrence A. Kapustka

3 Exposures and Effects 13
Cameron A. Irvine, Mary A. Ottinger, and Lawrence A. Kapustka

Introduction 13
Analytical Tools 14
Toxicity Testing 17
Predictive Toxicology 21
Increasingly Sensitive Endpoints and Expanding Knowledge 23
The Exposome and One Health 25

4 Sequence Effects 35
Lawrence A. Kapustka

5 Addressing the Challenges of Pharmaceutical Pollution 47
Sam A. Welch

Introduction 47
Drivers of Pharmaceutical Risk 48
Demographic and Market Change 50
Health and Management Change 51
Climate Change 52
Modeling the Risks of Pollutant Mixtures 52
Modeling the Risks of Multiple Stressors 54
Bayesian Networks for Environmental Risk Assessment 54
BNs for ERA: A Norwegian Example 55
Future Outlooks 59
Conclusions 61
Acknowledgments 61

6 The Role of Contaminants, in the Context of Multiple Stressors, in the Collapse of a Striped Bass Population 71
David J. Ostrach and Cameron A. Irvine

Introduction 71
Approach 71
Contaminant Exposures 72
Biochemical Activation 73
EROD 74
Immunointegrity 75
Acetylcholinesterase Inhibition 75
Metallothionein 77
Vitellogenin 77
Biochemical Effects Synthesis 79
Egg-Ovaries 79
Developmental and Histopathology Effects 80
Otoliths – Habitat Use 82
Conclusion 83
Acknowledgments 83

7 Management of Environmental Systems Using Cumulative Risk Assessment – The Importance of Multiple Stressor Cumulative Ecological Risk Assessment for Long-Term Management of Environmental Systems Demonstrated Using the Upper San Francisco Estuary Case Study 91
Wayne G. Landis

Introduction 91
Basics of Using the RRM for Multiple Stressor Risk Assessment 91
The Use of BNs for Calculation 92
The Upper San Francisco Estuary Example – The Study Site 94
The Development of the Conceptual Model 96
Pesticide Data 98
Water Quality Data 98
Chinook, Delta Smelt Trawl Data 98
Additional Chemical Screening and Geographic Distribution 100
Building the Predicted Fish Mortality Pathway 100
Options for the Conditional Probability Tables of the Predicted Fish Mortality Node 104
Calculation of Risk to the Individual Species 106
Discussion: Estimating Risk with Multiple Stressors/Cumulative Risk Assessment 108

8 Integrating Emerging Science in Advancing Risk Assessment for Wildlife 115
Mark S. Johnson and Thomas G. Bean

Introduction 115
Considering Data Generated from New and Emerging Tools in Problem Formulation 117
Improved Methods for Exposure Estimation 117
Aspirational Ways to Improve Accuracy of Exposure Models 123
What Has Been Incorporated Recently into Exposure Models? 126
Future Options for Improving Exposure Assessment Models 127
Novel Tools for Estimating Hazard (Toxicity) 131
In vivo Alternative Tools (Adverse Outcome Pathways, Cell Lines, IVIVE) 131
Methodological Improvements in Current Guidelines and Laboratory Model Development 134
Development of Toxicological Benchmarks Using Evidence Integration Techniques 136
Research and Data Needs 137

9 Reflections from an Environmental Toxicologist Working in a Large Company 147
alph G. Stahl Jr (Retired)

Introduction 147
Remediation and Restoration of Contaminated Land in the United States 148
Remediation and Restoration of Contaminated Land Outside the United States 148
What Is a "Site" 149
DuPont Remediation Program 150
Risk-Based Decision-Making 151
Sites/Examples 151
The United States – Superfund Site, Newport, Delaware 151
The United States – RCRA-Corrective Action Site, Waynesboro, Virginia 153
The United Kingdom – Contaminated Lands Program Site, Northern Ireland 155
Discussion 157
Acknowledgments 158
Conflict of Interest Statement 159
Disclaimer 159
Data Availability 159

10 Big Data – Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning – Examples of the Application of Approaches Derived from Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning to Analyze Large Datasets for Ecological Risk Assessment 163
Wayne G. Landis

Introduction 163
Section 1: Microcosm/Mesocosm Summary, the Effects of Jet Fuels, and Community Conditioning 165
Section 2: Ecological Risk Assessment/Relative Risk Model and the Port Valdez Risk Assessment 170
Section 3: Transition to BNs 175
Section 4: Case Summary: Predicting Risk to Estuary Water Quality and Patterns of Benthic Environmental DNA in Queensland, Australia 176
Section 5: Adaptive Management and Next Steps 179
Cautions/Caveats 180

11 New Tools and Approaches in Ecological Risk Assessment 185
P. Bruce Duncan and Jeanmarie M. Zodrow

Introduction 185
Despite the Goal to Advance Ecological Risk Assessment, Progress Can Be Very Slow 185
Lessons from Development and Use of NAMs to Reduce Animal Testing 188
Framework for Tool Development 192
Actions to Advance the Use of New Tools and Approaches 195
Q1. Why Are Uses in Decisions Not Easily Found? 195
Q2. How Do You Unlock Obstacles to Advancement? 196
Q2-Suggested Actions 197
Q3. What Creates Compelling Arguments for Decision-Makers? 200
Q3-Suggested Actions 201
Q4. What Support for Tools Is Needed for Success? 203
Q4-Suggested Actions 203
Q5. Where Do We See Successes? 205
Q5-Suggested Actions 205
Summary and Conclusions 209
Checklist of Actions 210
References 213
Appendix: Results of Author Survey 217

12 Going Forward 221
Lawrence A. Kapustka

Introduction 221

References 224
Index 227