Introduction xi

Section 1 Basis of Health and Disease 1

1 Cells and Tissues in Health and Disease 3
Reversible Cell Adaptations 6
Nonreversible Cell Injury and Cell Death 7
Literature Cited 8

2 Inflammation and the Immune Response 9
Specific Avian Immunologic Details 12
Literature Cited 13

3 Anatomy and Physiology 14
Body Orientation 14
Skeletal System 15
Limbs 15
Integument 17
Feathers 19
Cardiovascular System 21
Respiratory System 23
Upper Respiratory Tract 23
Lower Respiratory Tract 24
GI System 26
Liver 28
Urinary System 29
Reproductive Systems 30
Lymphoid Organs and Other Glands 31
Central Nervous System 32
Senses 32
Unique Avian Physiology and Systems 33
Oxygen Extraction and Uptake 33
Heat Conservation and Loss 34
Adaptations of Sea Birds and Diving 35
Flight 36
Literature Cited 39

4 Etiologic Agents of Infectious Disease 41
Viruses 42
Bacteria 43
Fungi 44
Protozoa 44
Parasites 44
Diagnosing Infectious Agents 45
How Pathogens Invade the Body 46
Step 1: Entry into the Body 46
Step 2: Dissemination and Cell Injury 47
Step 3: Replication and Release from the Host 50
Literature Cited 51

Section 2 Health Assessment and Management 53

5 Clinical Pathology and Diagnostics 55
Blood 55
Hematology 57
Chemistries 62
Serology 64
Proteins 64
Urinalysis 67
Fecal Samples 68
Cytology 69
Other Sampling Opportunities/Matrices 69
Literature Cited 71

6 Medical Care and Health Assessment of Birds 73
Animals in Managed Care 73
Preventative Health Care 75
Basic Treatment Modalities 86
Rehabilitation Medicine 87
General Signs of Illness and Common Conditions 90
Remaining Systems and Geriatric Care 91
Free-ranging Avian Capture, Release, and Health Assessments 92
Literature Cited 94

7 Reproductive Health and Management 95
Monitoring and Management of Reproduction 97
Prevention of Reproduction 98
Egg Development 98
Incubation and Hatching 100
Nestling Care 100
Female Health During Egg Laying Cycles 101
Studying Reproduction in Wild Populations and Application to Conservation 104
Literature Cited 105

Section 3 Environmental Challenges to Avian Health/Disease 107

8 Physical Anthropogenic Stressors – Climate Change, Habitat Fragmentation, Air Pollution, Fires, and Fisheries Interactions 109
Introduction 109
Climate and Temperature Change 109
Urbanization and Land/Habitat Change 113
Light and Noise Pollution 116
Air Pollution/Fires 120
Fisheries Interactions 123
Literature Cited 129

9 Biologic and Chemical Anthropogenic Stressors 142
Toxins 143
Harmful Algal Blooms 143
Domoic Acid 144
Saxitoxin 145
Brevetoxin 146
Cyanotoxins 147
Botulism 148
Organic Contaminants 149
Oil Spills 151
Heavy Metals 153
Microplastics 155
Clinical Pharmaceuticals 157
The Big Picture 159
Literature Cited 160

10 High Impact Avian Infectious Diseases – the Past and Future Outlook 172
Introduction 172
Viruses 173
Avian Influenza Virus 173
Newcastle Disease Virus 175
Arboviruses 176
Herpesviruses 179
Circovirus 180
Coronavirus 180
Poxvirus 181
Bacteria 181
Protozoa 183
Literature Cited 185

11 Stress and Welfare 190
What Is Stress? 190
Stress and Health 191
Assessing and/or Quantifying Stress 193
Treating or Managing Stress 195
Free-ranging Populations 195
Does Increased Stress Equal Decreased Welfare? 197
Avian Welfare 197
Summary 199
Post-script: Poultry Stress and Welfare in Brief 200
Literature Cited 203

12 Environmental Change and the Future of Avian Health and Welfare 208
Breeding Endangered Avian Species in Captivity (Ex situ Breeding) 210
Research on Wild Populations and Habitats 215
Literature Cited 218

13 Epilogue – Ode to the Chicken 221

Literature Cited 224
Index 225