Preface xvii
About the Book xvii
Prerequisites and Course Organization xviii
Acknowledgments xviii
About the Author xix
Conventions and Notations xxi
About the Companion Website xxiii

1 Introduction 1
1.1 DIP System Components 4
1.2 Areas of DIP 5
1.3 Final Remarks and Goals 7

2 Review of 1-D Signal Processing 9
2.1 Discrete-Time Signals and Systems-Deterministic Case 9
2.2 Discrete-Time Signals and Systems-Random Case 20
2.3 Problems 28

3 Theoretical Background 31
3.1 Discrete-Space 2-D Signals and Systems-Deterministic Case 31
3.2 Discrete-space 2-D Signals and Systems-Random Case 45
3.3 Computer Projects 49
3.4 Problems 50

4 Image Formation and Perception 53
4.1 Human Eye 53
4.2 Elements of Visual Perception 54
4.3 Color Systems 61
4.4 Problems 64

5 Image Sampling and Quantization 67
5.1 Image Sampling 67
5.2 Image Quantization 72
5.3 Computer Projects 81
5.4 Problems 82

6 Image Transforms 85
6.1 2-D Discrete Fourier Transform 85
6.2 2-D Discrete Cosine Transform 87
6.3 2-D Walsh-Hadamard Transform 90
6.4 2-D Karhunen–Loeve Transform 96
6.5 Computer Projects 101
6.6 Problems 102

7 Wavelet Transform 107
7.1 Short-Time Fourier Transform 107
7.2 Continuous Wavelet Transform 109
7.3 Digitization of Shift-Scale Parameters and Wavelet Series 114
7.4 Filter Banks and Discrete Wavelet Series 115
7.5 2-D DWT and Filter Banks 123
7.6 Computer Projects 126
7.7 Problems 127

8 Image Enhancement 131
8.1 Point Operations 131
8.2 Spatial Operations 139
8.3 Transform Domain Operations 154
8.4 Computer Projects 162
8.5 Problems 164

9 Image Modeling 171
9.1 1-D Linear Models 171
9.2 2-D Linear Image Models 178
9.3 Multivariate or Vector Linear Models 188
9.4 Computer Projects 191
9.5 Problems 191

10 Image Restoration 195
10.1 Image Degradation Models 195
10.2 Image Restoration Filters 197
10.3 Computer Projects 216
10.4 Problems 217

11 Image Compression and Encoding 223
11.1 A Review of Information Theory 224
11.2 Image Compression and Encoding Methods – Lossless 227
11.3 Image Compression and Encoding Methods – Lossy 232
11.4 Hybrid Methods 242
11.5 Computer Projects 242
11.6 Problems 243

12 Image Segmentation 249
12.1 Similarity-Based Image Segmentation 250
12.2 Edge and Contour-Based Segmentation 264
12.3 Computer Projects 269
12.4 Problems 271

13 Feature Extraction 275
13.1 Objectives and Requirements 275
13.2 Color Features 277
13.3 Energy Features 279
13.4 Spectral Features 280
13.5 Textural Features 283
13.6 Line and Contour Features 291
13.7 Shape Features 301
13.8 Computer Projects 305
13.9 Problems 307

14 Morphological Operations 311
14.1 Basic Morphological Operations – Binary Images 312
14.2 Morphological Transforms – Binary Images 316
14.3 Morphological Operations – Grayscale Images 322
14.4 Applications of Morphological Operations 328
14.5 Computer Projects 332
14.6 Problems 334

15 Image Reconstruction 339
15.1 Basics of Image Reconstruction 339
15.2 Analytical Image Reconstruction Methods 344
15.3 Iterative Image Reconstruction Methods 347
15.4 Computer Projects 354
15.5 Problems 354

16 Traditional Image Classification 359
16.1 Deterministic Pattern Classification 359
16.2 Statistical Pattern Classification 363
16.3 Computer Projects 371
16.4 Problems 371

17 Modern Image Classification: Elements of Machine Learning 375
17.1 Biological Neural Networks 375
17.2 Artificial Neural Networks 376
17.3 Learning Algorithms 379
17.4 Computer Projects 395
17.5 Problems 396

18 Modern Image Classification-Layered Machines 401
18.1 Multilayer Perceptron Neural Networks 401
18.2 Convolutional Neural Networks 408
18.3 Self-Organizing Feature Maps 417
18.4 Computer Projects 424
18.5 Problems 425

19 Dimensionality Reduction Networks and Autoencoders 431
19.1 Linear Autoencoders 431
19.2 Nonlinear Dimensionality Reduction Using Manifold Learning 434
19.3 Nonlinear Autoencoders 438
19.4 Computer Projects 444
19.5 Problems 445

20 AI Applications in Digital Image Processing 449
20.1 Disparity Estimation from Stereo Images 449
20.2 Associative Memory for Pattern Retrieval 453
20.3 Computer Projects 461

References 462
Appendix-A: Review of 1-D z-Transform 465
Appendix-B: 2-D z-Transform 471
Index 473