List of Contributors xxiii

Foreword xxxi

Preface xxxiii

Acknowledgments xxxvii

1 Microalgae for Carbon Sequestration: An Introduction to Concepts and Applications 1

Muhammad Shahid, Abdul Wahid, Umer Hayat, Alnour Mahmmoud Bokhary, Muhammad Usman Khan, Muhammad Mubashar Omar,

Shuaishuai Ma, and Mahnoor Chishty

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Microalgae Biology and Carbon Fixation Mechanism 3

1.2.1 Overview of Species 3

1.2.2 Photosynthesis and Carbon Capture: Role of RuBisCO and the Calvin Cycle 6

1.2.3 Carbon Concentrating Mechanism 8

1.3 Microalgae Cultivation Techniques for Carbon Sequestration 10

1.3.1 Open Pond Systems 10

1.3.2 Photobioreactors 10

1.3.3 Hybrid Systems 11

1.3.4 Use of Flue Gas 12

1.4 Carbon Sequestration Potential of Microalgae 12

1.4.1 CO2 Fixation Rates 12

1.4.2 Mass Balance and Carbon Conversion Efficiency: From CO2 to Biomass 13

1.4.3 Carbon Storage Forms 15

1.4.4 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA): Evaluating Carbon Net Savings 16

1.5 Applications of Microalgal Biomass from Carbon Sequestration 17

1.5.1 Biofuels 17

1.5.2 Biofertilizers 18

1.5.3 Animal Feed 18

1.5.4 Bioplastics 19

1.5.5 Pharmaceuticals and Nutraceuticals 19

1.6 Technological Innovations and Recent Advances 19

1.6.1 Genetic Engineering 20

1.6.2 Artificial Intelligence (AI) and IoT: Smart Monitoring of Cultivation Systems 21

1.6.3 Nanotechnology: Improving Light Penetration and Nutrient Absorption 22

1.6.4 Co-cultivation Systems: Symbiotic Growth with Other Microorganisms 23

1.7 Economic and Environmental Considerations 24

1.7.1 Cost Analysis: Capital and Operational Costs of Different Cultivation Systems 24

1.7.2 Market Potential: Demand for Bio-based Products from Microalgal Biomass 25

1.7.3 Environmental Impact: Reduction of Greenhouse Gases, Water Use, and Land Footprint 26

1.7.4 Policy and Incentives 27

1.8 Challenges to Carbon Emission and Sequestration 27

1.8.1 Technical Challenges: Scaling Up Production While Maintaining Efficiency 27

1.8.2 Economic Barriers: High Initial Investment and Competition with Fossil Fuels 28

1.8.3 Environmental Concerns: Water Use and Potential Contamination 29

1.9 Conclusions 30

1.10 Future Outlook 30

References 31

2 Advances in Heterotrophic Microalgal Cultivation for Optimized Carbon Sequestration 37

Shaswatee Bhattacharjee, Nilamjyoti Kalita, Hunmily Teronpi, Bhargish Nandan Gogoi, Shanydul Islam, and Partha Pratim Baruah

2.1 Introduction 37

2.2 Strategies for Carbon Trapping 38

2.2.1 Biological Carbon Sequestration 39

2.2.2 Geological Carbon Sequestration 40

2.2.3 Chemical and Technological Carbon Trapping 40

2.3 Microalgae as a Carbon Sequester 41

2.4 Process Optimization for Enhanced Carbon Sequestration 42

2.4.1 pH 42

2.4.2 Temperature 43

2.4.3 Light/Photoperiod 43

2.4.4 Macro and Micronutrients 43

2.5 Cultivation Techniques 44

2.5.1 Circular Ponds 44

2.5.2 Unstirred Open Ponds 44

2.5.3 Raceway Pond 45

2.6 Bioreactor Design 45

2.7 Strain Engineering 46

2.8 Prospects of Carbon Sequestered Microalgae 47

2.8.1 Biofuels 47

2.8.2 Bioethanol 48

2.8.3 Bio-oil 49

2.8.4 Bioremediation 50

2.8.5 Fertilizer 50

2.8.6 Others 50

2.9 Challenges in Carbon Sequestration 51

2.10 Conclusion 52

Acknowledgments 53

References 53

3 Flue Gas Utilization in Microalgal Systems: A Sustainable Approach for Carbon Capture 61

Saadia Ijaz and Shahida Hasnain

3.1 Introduction 61

3.2 Flue Gas Mitigation Strategies 62

3.3 Flue Gas Mitigation with Microalgae 63

3.3.1 Microalgal Flue Gas Utilization Process 64

3.4 Mechanism of CO2 Fixation in Microalgae 65

3.4.1 Autotrophic Metabolism 65

3.4.2 Carbon Concentration Mechanism 67

3.5 Microalgal Cultivation Systems 68

3.5.1 Open Systems 68

3.5.2 Closed System 70

3.5.3 Hybrid System 71

3.6 Factors Affecting Flue Gas Mitigation by Microalgae 72

3.6.1 Effect of Flue Gas Composition 72

3.6.2 Types of Microalgal Strains 75

3.6.3 Effect of pH 76

3.6.4 Effect of Temperature 76

3.6.5 Effect of Light Irradiance 77

3.6.6 Effect of Flow and Mixing 78

3.6.7 Effect of Mass Transfer 79

3.7 Strategies to Enhance Flue Gas Capture 79

3.7.1 Biotechnological Strategies 79

3.7.2 Process Control and Engineering Strategies 82

3.8 Conclusion 85

References 85

4 Optimizing Flue Gas-derived Nutrients for Algal Cultivation and Carbon Reduction 99

Savita Singh, Avinash Singh, Mrinal, and Krishna Kumar Jaiswal

4.1 Introduction 99

4.2 Flue Gas: Source and Characteristics 100

4.3 Flue Gas-derived CO2 Separation via Adsorbents for Microalgal-based Bioremediation 102

4.3.1 CO2 Separation Technologies 102

4.3.2 Membrane Materials and Applications 102

4.3.3 Technical and Operational Challenges 103

4.3.4 Energy and Logistical Constraints 103

4.3.5 Integration with Microalgal Systems 103

4.4 CO2 Capture from Flue Gas via Chemical Absorbents and Their Regeneration for Algal

Cultivation 104

4.5 Microalgal CO2 Mitigation Using Liquid Phase Carbon Carriers and Direct Flue Gas

Application 105

4.6 Direct Flue Gas Utilization in Microalgal Cultivation Systems 106

4.7 Microalgae Reduce NOx, SOx, and Heavy Metal Ions in Industrial Flue Gas 108

4.7.1 NOx Reduction by Microalgae 109

4.7.2 SOx Reduction by Microalgae 109

4.7.3 Reduction of Heavy Metal Ions by Microalgae 110

4.7.4 Microalgae for Carbon Dioxide Capture from Flue Gas 111

4.8 Microalgae Cultivation Systems 113

4.8.1 Open Pond Systems 114

4.8.2 Raceway Ponds 114

4.8.3 Multilayer Bioreactors 116

4.8.4 Closed Cultivation Systems 116

4.8.5 Genetic Enhancement and Enzymatic Strategies for Flue Gas Sequestration Using

Microalgae 116

4.8.6 Downstream Applications of Microalgal Biomass 117

4.8.7 Life Cycle Assessment of Algal Cultivation 119

4.8.8 Future Directions 120

4.9 Conclusion 121

References 122

5 Integrating Microalgae with Power Plants: Carbon Sequestration and Emission Reduction Strategies 129

Ahmed Elsayed Mahmoud Fodah, Taha Abdelfattah Mohammed Abdelwahab, Haiping Yang, and Sameh Samir Ali

5.1 Introduction 129

5.1.1 Background on Climate Change and Emissions 129

5.1.2 Microalgae for Carbon Fixation 130

5.1.3 Carbon Concentrating Mechanisms (CCMs) in Microalgae 131

5.2 Power Plant Emissions 134

5.2.1 Emission Points for Integration of Power Plant with Microalgae 136

5.2.2 Challenges in Using Untreated Flue Gas Directly 136

5.2.3 Emission Profiles from Different Power Plants 137

5.3 Designs of Cultivation Systems 138

5.3.1 Microalgae Integration Strategies with Power Plants 140

5.3.2 Enhancing the Compatibility of Flue Gas Components with Microalgal Growth 145

5.3.3 Integrated Systems for Wastewater Treatment 146

5.4 Practical Applications and Economics 148

5.4.1 Partnerships Between Power Plant Facilities and Algal Firms 148

5.4.2 Carbon Pricing and ETS 149

5.4.3 Incentives for Carbon Mitigation 150

5.4.4 Evaluations of Techno-economic Analysis (TEA) 151

5.5 Challenges and Future Perspectives in the Integration of Microalgae with Energy Generation Facilities 152

5.6 Conclusion 154

Abbreviation List 154

References 154

6 Integrating Microalgae in Wastewater Remediation and Biodiesel Production: Advancing Toward Carbon Neutrality 167

Sameh S. Ali, Yasser El-Halmouch, Mohammad Magdy El-Metwally, Ahmed E. Fodah, Imran Ahmad, Katerina Klavdianou, Michael Kornaros, and Faizal Bux

6.1 Introduction 167

6.2 Major Pollutants in Aquatic Environments 169

6.3 Microalgae in Wastewater Remediation 172

6.3.1 Role of Microalgae in Wastewater Treatment 176

6.3.2 Nutrient and Pollutant Removal Mechanisms 176

6.3.3 Biomass Production and Biodiesel Potential 178

6.3.4 Lipid Accumulation, Extraction, and Biodiesel Production 179

6.3.5 Carbon Neutrality and Sustainability Assessment 183

6.4 Conclusion 185

References 186

7 Utilizing Wastewater for Microalgal Cultivation: A Dual Approach to Carbon Capture and Water Treatment 197

Sameh S. Ali, Hamad Qaiser, Ahmed E. M. Fodah, Amr H. H. Hashem, Eirini Sventzouri, Michael Kornaros, and Imran Ahmad

7.1 Introduction 197

7.2 Biology and Role of Microalgae in Environmental Remediation 199

7.2.1 Overview of Microalgae (Types, Characteristics, Photosynthetic Efficiency) 199

7.2.2 Growth Requirements: Light, CO2, Nutrients 200

7.2.3 Mechanisms of Nutrient Removal: Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Heavy Metals 202

7.2.4 Advantages Over Conventional Wastewater Treatment Methods 207

7.3 Wastewater Characteristics and Suitability for Microalgal Cultivation 208

7.3.1 Types of Wastewaters 208

7.3.2 Key Parameters 209

7.3.3 Pretreatment Requirements and their Effects on Algae Growth 214

7.4 Carbon Capture Potential of Microalgae 215

7.4.1 Photosynthetic CO2 Fixation Pathway 216

7.4.2 Role of Flue Gas and Industrial CO2 Streams as Carbon Sources 217

7.4.3 Integrating Microalgal Cultivation into Carbon Sequestration Strategies 218

7.5 Wastewater Treatment Efficiency 219

7.5.1 Case Studies or Examples Demonstrating COD, BOD, and TSS Reduction 220

7.5.2 Regulatory Implications and Alignment with Environmental Standards 224

7.6 Challenges and Future Perspectives 226

7.7 Conclusion 227

References 228

8 Application of Microalgae and Other Microorganisms Co-cultivation Systems for a Circular Bioeconomy 247

Villamil J.A., Levío-Raimán M., González-Fernández C., and Tomás-Pejó E

8.1 Introduction 247

8.2 Key Considerations When Co-culturing Microalgae With Other Microorganisms 249

8.3 Applications of Microalgae Co-cultivation Systems 251

8.3.1 Wastewater Treatment and Nutrients Recovery 252

8.3.2 Biofuels Production 256

8.3.3 Carbon Dioxide Biofixation 259

8.4 Limitations and Challenges 262

8.5 Conclusion 264

Acknowledgments 264

References 265

9 Fundamentals and Applications of Photobioreactors for Carbon Capture—Part I 273

Ihana Aguiar Severo, Walter José Martínez-Burgos, José Ignacio Gayo-Peláez, Alla Silkina, Jeremy Alexander Axle Sabo, and Payton Jade Walker

9.1 Introduction 273

9.2 Fundamentals of PBRs 274

9.2.1 Design Types and Configurations 275

9.3 Carbon Capture Using Photobioreactors 282

9.3.1 Mechanisms of CO2 Uptake by Microalgae 282

9.3.2 Environmental and Species-specific Factors 289

9.3.3 Integration of Flue-gas and Industrial CO2 into PBRs 293

9.3.4 Mass Transfer and Absorption Kinetics 298

9.3.5 Case Studies 303

9.4 Conclusion 305

References 306

10 Microalgae-based Photobioreactors for Carbon Capture: Challenges, Scale-Up, and Integration for Zero-discharge Systems—Part II 315

Ihana Aguiar Severo, Walter José Martínez-Burgos, José Ignacio Gayo-Peláez, Alla Silkina, Jeremy Alexander Axle Sabo, and Payton Jade Walker

10.1 Introduction 315

10.2 Challenges to Industrial Deployment of Microalgal Systems 316

10.2.1 Operational and Process-Level Challenges 316

10.3 Regulatory, Infrastructure, and System Integration Barriers 321

10.3.1 Policy Gaps and Uncertainty 322

10.3.2 Environmental and Social Concerns 323

10.3.3 Infrastructure Mismatch 324

10.3.4 Pathways for Alignment 324

10.4 Emerging Solutions and Pilot-scale Success Stories 325

10.4.1 Technological Innovations Enabling Efficient CO2 Capture 325

10.4.2 Pilot and Demonstration Projects 327

10.4.3 Integration into the Circular Economy 329

10.4.4 Lessons Learned and Scaling Opportunities 331

10.5 Lifecycle Flowchart for Zero-Discharge Algal Carbon Capture 333

10.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 335

References 335

11 Microalgae-based Solutions for Zero-discharge Concepts in Industrial Applications 341

Nilay Kumar Sarker and Prasad Kaparaju

11.1 Introduction 341

11.2 Principles of Zero-discharge in Industrial Systems 343

11.3 Microalgal Biology Relevant to ZDCs 344

11.4 Waste Streams Suitable for Microalgae-based ZDCs 346

11.4.1 High-nutrient Effluents 347

11.4.2 High-salinity and Brine-based Effluents 347

11.4.3 High-organic Load Streams 348

11.4.4 Gas Emissions as Inputs 348

11.5 Microalgal Integration into Zero-discharge System Designs 349

11.5.1 PBR-based ZDC Modules 349

11.5.2 HRAPs as Pre-treatment for ZDC 350

11.5.3 Algal Biofilms and Attached-growth Systems 351

11.6 Bioremediation Functions of Microalgae for Achieving Zero Discharge 351

11.6.1 Nutrient Removal (N, P, K) 352

11.6.2 Heavy Metal and Toxic Compound Removal 352

11.6.3 Organic Pollutant Degradation 352

11.6.4 Pathogen Reduction and Water Disinfection 353

11.6.5 Practical Dimension 353

11.7 Biomass Valorization Pathways Supporting Zero-discharge 354

11.7.1 Bioenergy Routes 354

11.7.2 High-value Products 355

11.7.3 Biochar and Biofertilizers from Residual Biomass 356

11.7.4 Circular Integration Model 356

11.7.5 Practical Dimension 356

11.8 Case Studies Across Industrial Sectors 356

11.8.1 Textile and Dyeing Industry 357

11.8.2 Mining and Metallurgical Industries 358

11.8.3 Power Plants and Cement Kilns 358

11.8.4 Aquaculture and Fisheries Processing 359

11.8.5 Food and Beverage Processing Plants 359

11.9 Technical Analysis 359

11.9.1 Techno-economic Considerations 359

11.9.2 Bottlenecks, Limitations, and Engineering Challenges 360

11.10 Conclusion 361

References 362

12 Microalgae in Circular Bioeconomy: Closing the Loop in Carbon Utilization 365

Charu Deepika and Roong Jien Wong

12.1 Introduction 365

12.2 Microalgae and CO2 Sequestration 370

12.2.1 CO2 Fixation Pathways in Microalgae 370

12.2.2 Photosynthetic Efficiency and Productivity Metrics 372

12.2.3 CO2 Capture Potential: Quantitative Comparisons with Terrestrial Plants and CCS 373

12.3 Microalgal Cultivation Strategies for Circularity 376

12.3.1 Microalgae Cultivation Systems 377

12.3.2 Utilization of Industrial Flue Gas as CO2 Source 378

12.3.3 Wastewater as Nutrient Input: Closing the Nutrient Loop 378

12.3.4 Energy and Resource Efficiency in Cultivation 379

12.4 Biorefinery Concept and Biomass Valorization 380

12.5 Circular Bioeconomy Models and Industrial Integration 383

12.6 Sustainability and Economic Assessments (LCA and TEA) 384

12.6.1 Environmental Trade-offs and System Boundaries 386

12.6.2 Circularity Indicators and Metrics 387

12.7 Challenges, Innovations, and Future Perspectives 387

12.7.1 Key Challenges in Scaling Microalgal Solutions 387

12.7.2 Technological and Bioprocess Innovations 389

12.7.3 Towards a Net-zero and Circular Carbon Future 390

References 391

13 Harnessing Microalgae for Carbon Sequestration in Circular Bioeconomy Frameworks 399

Eleni Pagkaki, Katerina Klavdianou, Eirini Sventzouri, Myrsini Sakarika, Rania Al-Tohamy, Sameh S. Ali, and Michael Kornaros

13.1 Introduction: The Intersection of Decarbonization and Bioeconomy 399

13.1.1 The Global Carbon Challenge 399

13.1.2 Defining the Circular Bioeconomy 400

13.1.3 Microalgae as a Green Platform 400

13.2 Biological Mechanisms of Carbon Fixation 401

13.2.1 Photosynthetic Efficiency 402

13.2.2 Strain Selection for High-carbon Environments 404

13.2.3 Metabolic Engineering 405

13.3 Technologies for Harnessing Microalgae 406

13.3.1 Cultivation Systems 406

13.3.2 Coupling with Industrial Flue Gas 408

13.3.3 Wastewater as a Nutrient Source 412

13.4 Integration into Circular Bioeconomy Frameworks: The Algal Biorefinery Concept 414

13.4.1 From Waste to Wealth: Product Pathways 414

13.4.2 Closing the Loop: Recycling Residual Biomass 417

13.5 Environmental Assessment 417

13.6 Future Perspectives and Challenges 418

13.6.1 Scaling Up: From Pilot to Industrial Implementation 418

13.6.2 Regulatory and Policy Frameworks 422

13.7 Conclusion 422

References 423

14 Production of Biofuel from Microalgae as a Strategy for Replacing Fossil Oil 431

Cyro Hernandez Calixto and André Bellin Mariano

14.1 The Global Energy Challenge and the Role of Biomass 431

14.2 Potential of Microalgae as an Energy Feedstock 433

14.3 Fundamentals and Thermochemical Routes for Synthetic Fuels 434

14.3.1 Biochemical Composition of Microalgae and Conversion Implications 437

14.3.2 Pyrolysis of Microalgae and Biocrude Production 437

14.3.3 Hydrothermal Processing and Hydrothermal Liquefaction 440

14.4 Microalgae Gasification and the Syngas Platform 442

14.5 Intermediate Platforms: Biocrude and Syngas 443

14.6 Refining and Synthesis from Intermediate Platforms: Distillation, Upgrading, and Catalytic Routes 444

14.6.1 Atmospheric Distillation and Fractionation of Biocrude 444

14.6.2 Biocrude Upgrading: Principles and Challenges 445

14.6.3 Hydroprocessing: Hydrotreatment and Hydrocracking 446

14.6.4 Integration with FCC (Fluid Catalytic Cracking) 447

14.6.5 FT Synthesis and Methanol Route 450

14.6.6 Process Integration 453

14.7 Technical-economic and Cost-benefit Analysis of Routes 456

14.8 Innovative Business Models and Industrial Integration 457

14.9 Conclusions and Future Prospects 458

References 460

15 Life Cycle and Techno-economic Analysis (LCA and TEA) of Microalgal Systems: Evaluating Environmental and Economic Sustainability 463

Katerina Klavdianou, Eirini Sventzouri, Eleni Pagkaki, Rania Al-Tohamy, Sameh S. Ali, and Michael Kornaros

15.1 Introduction 463

15.1.1 An Overview of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Techno-economic Analysis (TEA) 464

15.1.2 Establishing System Boundaries and Functional Unit 465

15.2 Bibliometric Analysis 466

15.3 Methodology and Standards 471

15.3.1 LCA Frameworks and Standards 471

15.3.2 TEA Frameworks 471

15.3.3 Harmonization of Models: The Problem of Inconsistent Data and Assumptions in Current Literature 472

15.4 LCA: Environmental Impacts 476

15.4.1 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) Analysis 478

15.4.2 Impact Categories 482

15.5 Techno-economic Analysis 484

15.5.1 Capital Expenditures 484

15.5.2 Operational Expenditures 485

15.6 Comparative Scenarios and Trade-offs 486

15.6.1 Cultivation System 486

15.6.2 Product Value Pyramid 487

15.7 Strategies for Improving Economics and Sustainability 488

15.7.1 The Biorefinery Approach 488

15.7.2 Circular Integration 489

15.8 Conclusion and Future Outlook 490

References 491

16 Future Direction Scaling Microalgae-driven Carbon Capture in a Circular Bioeconomy 503

Mohamad Padri and Ananda Nuryadi Pratama

16.1 Introduction 503

16.2 Engineering and Scientific Considerations for Scaling Up 504

16.2.1 Laboratory Development to Actual Scale Cultivation 504

16.2.2 Large-scale Cultivation System 506

16.2.3 Key Scale-up Challenges 509

16.2.4 Strains Sources for Carbon Capture Process 511

16.2.5 Digitalization, Automation, and Artificial Intelligence 512

16.3 Integration into Circular Biorefineries 514

16.3.1 Biorefinery Concept for Microalgae Carbon Capture System 514

16.3.2 Wastewater Utilization for Carbon Capture 516

16.3.3 Application of Close Loop System for Microalgae-based Carbon Capture 517

16.4 Current Challenges in Microalgae-based Carbon Capture 518

16.4.1 Cultivation Instability and Operational Limitations 518

16.4.2 Harvesting, Dewatering, and Downstream Constrains 519

16.4.3 Nutrient Level and Culture Demand 520

16.4.4 Economic Aspects and Scalability 520

16.4.5 Scientific and Engineering Gaps for Field Execution 521

16.5 Future Directions and Development Projection 522

16.5.1 Advancements in Biological Engineering and Strain Development 522

16.5.2 Engineering and Operational Aspects 522

16.5.3 Integration with Actual System and Utilization of Emission Sources 523

16.5.4 Continuation of Application by Applying Circular Bioeconomy Concept 524

16.6 Conclusion 524

References 525

17 Case Studies in Microalgal Technologies: Real-world Applications and Lessons for Carbon Sequestration and Circular Bioeconomy 531

Muhammad Shahid, Abdul Wahid, Umer Hayat, Alnour Mahmmoud

Bokhary, Muhammad Usman Khan, Muhammad Mubashar Omar, Shuaishuai Ma, and Mahnoor Chishty

17.1 Introduction 531

17.2 Microalgae Distribution and Abundance 534

17.3 Carbon Sequestration by Microalgae 535

17.3.1 Major Economically Useful Microalgal Species in the Oceanic World 535

17.3.2 Efficiency of Microalgal Species in Carbon Sequestration 538

17.4 Carbon Sequestration and Microalgae-based Technologies 540

17.4.1 Power Plants: Capturing CO2 from Industrial Flue Gases 541

17.4.2 Cement Industry: Reducing CO2 Emissions through Algal Absorption 541

17.4.3 Breweries: Utilizing Fermentation Emissions for Algal Growth 541

17.4.4 Steel Industry: Microalgae-based Carbon Capture 542

17.5 Microalgae as a Key Player in the Circular Bioeconomy 542

17.5.1 Microalgae in Bioenergy and Biofuels 542

17.5.2 Microalgae in Bioplastics and Packaging 543

17.5.3 Microalgae in Nutraceuticals and Animal Feed 544

17.5.4 Microalgae in Wastewater Treatment and Soil Restoration 544

17.5.5 Microalgae in Health and Cosmetics 544

17.6 Conclusion 545

17.7 Future Outlook 546

References 546

18 Public Perceptions, Policy Frameworks, and Regulatory Pathways: Overcoming Challenges for Microalgae Adoption 555

Nilay Kumar Sarker and Prasad Kaparaju

18.1 Introduction 555

18.2 Public Perceptions: Barriers and Opportunities 556

18.2.1 Awareness and Understanding of Microalgae-based Products 556

18.2.2 Consumer Acceptance of Algae-derived Foods and Bioproducts 557

18.2.3 Social Acceptance of Algae Cultivation Facilities 558

18.2.4 Strategies to Improve Public Perception 559

18.3 Policy Frameworks Shaping Microalgae Adoption 560

18.3.1 Overview of Relevant Policy Domains 561

18.3.2 National and Regional Differences 561

18.3.3 Cross-sector Policy Inconsistencies 562

18.3.4 The Role of Incentives, Subsidies, and Market Instruments 563

18.4 Regulatory Pathways: Current Landscape and Bottlenecks 564

18.4.1 Regulatory Actors and Responsibilities 564

18.4.2 Legal Classification Challenges 564

18.4.3 Facility Permitting and Compliance 565

18.4.4 International Trade and Standards 566

18.5 Case Studies 566

18.5.1 Wastewater Treatment and Biofertilizer Production: A Case of Operational Success With Regulatory Hesitation 567

18.5.2 Functional Food and Feed Industries: High Commercial Potential with Cost and Compliance Failures 567

18.5.3 Wastewater Bioremediation and Pollution Control 568

18.5.4 Bioprocessing and Industrial Scale-Up 569

18.5.5 Comparative Analysis 570

18.6 Integrative Framework: Linking Public Perceptions, Policy, and Regulation 571

18.6.1 The Socio-technical Adoption Model for Microalgae 571

18.6.2 Identifying Leverage Points 572

18.6.3 Role of Multi-stakeholder Collaboration 572

18.7 Pathways to Overcome Adoption Challenges 573

18.7.1 Policy Reforms 573

18.7.2 Public Engagement Strategies 574

18.7.3 Industry Best Practices 575

18.7.4 Research and Innovation Priorities 575

18.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 576

References 577

19 Emerging Frontiers in Microalgal Innovation: AI Integration, Genetic Engineering, and Next-generation Technologies 581

Tarek Mahrous, Tamer Elsamahy, Esraa A. Abdelkarim, Osama Abdalla Abdelshafy Mohamad, and Ahmed Elsayed Mahmoud Fodah

19.1 Introduction 581

19.2 AI in Microalgal Systems 583

19.2.1 AI in Strain Identification, Classification, and Process Optimization 583

19.2.2 Real-time Monitoring and Control 586

19.3 Genetic Engineering and Synthetic Biology Approaches 587

19.3.1 Genome Editing Tools 587

19.3.2 Metabolic Pathway Engineering 591

19.4 Next-generation Cultivation Technologies 594

19.4.1 Smart and AI-driven Photobioreactors 594

19.4.2 Microfluidics and High-throughput Screening 595

19.5 Integration and Synergy: Building Programmable Biofactories 597

19.6 Challenges and Ethical Considerations 600

19.6.1 Biosafety and Ecological Risks of Genetically Modified Algae 600

19.6.2 Data Privacy and Transparency in AI-driven Processes 600

19.6.3 Regulatory Landscapes and Public Perception 601

19.7 Outlook 601

19.7.1 Emerging Trends: Quantum AI, Self-evolving Strains, and Biofoundries 602

19.7.2 Interdisciplinary Training and Collaboration 602

19.7.3 Roadmap for Commercial and Ecological Deployment 603

19.8 Conclusion 603

References 604

Index 613