Table of Contents
Preface ix
Introduction xi
I. Composing a Short Argument: Some General Rules 1
1. Distinguish premises and conclusion 1
2. Present your ideas in a natural order 3
3. Start from reliable premises 4
4. Be concrete and concise 5
5. Avoid loaded language 6
6. Use consistent terms 7
7. Stick to one meaning for each term 8
II. Arguments by Example 10
8. Give more than one example 11
9. Use representative examples 12
10. Background information is crucial 14
11. Consider counterexamples 17
III. Arguments by Analogy 19
12. Analogy requires a relevantly similar example 21
IV. Arguments from Authority 24
13. Sources should be cited 25
14. Seek informed sources 26
15. Seek impartial sources 28
16. Cross-check sources 30
17. Personal attacks do not disqualify a source 30
V. Arguments about Causes 32
18. Explain how cause leads to effect 33
19. Propose the most likely cause 35
20. Correlated events are not necessarily related 36
21. Correlated events may have a common cause 36
22. Either of two correlated events may cause the other 38
23. Causes may be complex 38
VI. Deductive Arguments 40
24. Modus Ponens 41
25. Modus Tollens 42
26. Hypothetical Syllogism 44
27. Disjunctive Syllogism 46
28. Dilemma 47
29. Reductio ad absurdum 48
30. Deductive arguments in several steps 50
VII. Composing an Argumentative Essay
A. Exploring the Issue 53
A1. Explore the arguments on all sides of the issue 54
A2. Question and defend each argument's premises 56
A3. Revise and rethink arguments as they emerge 57
VIII. Composing an Argumentative Essay
B. Main Points of the Essay 59
B1. Explain the question 59
B2. Make a definite claim or proposal 60
B3. Develop your arguments fully 61
B4. Consider objections 62
B5. Consider alternatives 63
IX. Composing an Argumentative Essay
C. Writing 64
C1. Follow your outline 64
C2. Keep the introduction brief 65
C3. Give your arguments one at a time 65
C4. Clarify, clarify, clarify 67
C5. Support objections with arguments 68
C6. Don't claim more than you have shown 69
X. Fallacies 71
The Two Great Fallacies 71
Some Classical Fallacies 73
Appendix Definition 79
D1. When terms are unclear, get specific 80
D2. When terms are contested, work from the clear cases 82
D3. Don't expect definitions to do the work of arguments 84
Next Steps 86