Preface xi
Chapter 1 Language, Learning, and Teaching 1
Questions about SLA 2
Learner Characteristics 2
Linguistic Factors 3
Learning Processes 3
Age and Acquisition 3
Classroom Instruction 3
Context 4
Purpose 4
Rejoicing in Our Defeats 4
Language 6
Learning and Teaching 8
Three Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition 9
Structural Linguistics and Behavioral Psychology 9
Generative Linguistics and Cognitive Psychology 10
Constructivism: A Multidisciplinary Approach 12
Nineteen Centuries of Language Teaching 15
Language Teaching in the Twentieth Century 16
Suggested Readings 18
Language Learning Experience: Journal Entry 1 19
For the Teacher: Activities (A) & Discussions (D) 20
Chapter 2 First Language Acquisition 21
Theories of First Language Acquisition 22
Behavioral Approaches 23
Challenges to Behavioral Approaches 25
The Nativist Approach 26
Challenges to Nativist Approaches 28
Functional Approaches 30
Cognition and Language Development 31
Social Interaction and Language Development 32
Issues in First Language Acquisition 33
Competence and Performance 33
Comprehension and Production 37
Nature or Nurture? 38
Universals 39
Systematicity and Variability 41
Language and Thought 41
Imitation 42
Practice and Frequency 44
Input 45
Discourse 46
L1-Acquisition-Inspired Methods 47
Suggested Readings 48
Language Learning Experience: Journal Entry 2 49
For the Teacher: Activities (A) & Discussion (D) 49
Chapter 3 Age and Acquisition 51
Dispelling Myths 51
Types of Comparison and Contrast 53
The Critical Period Hypothesis: The Younger the Better? 54
Neurobiological Considerations 55
Hemispheric Lateralization 55
Biological Timetables 56
Anthropological Evidence 57
The Significance of Accent 58
Cognitive Considerations 60
Affective Considerations 63
Linguistic Considerations 66
Bilingualism 66
Interference Between First and Second Languages 67
Order of Acquisition 67
Issues in First Language Acquisition Revisited 70
Competence and Performance 70
Comprehension and Production 70
Nature or Nurture? 70
Universals 71
Systematicity and Variability 71
Language and Thought 71
Imitation 72
Practice and Frequency 72
Input 72
Discourse 72
Age-and-Acquisition-Inspired Teaching Methods 73
Total Physical Response 73
The Natural Approach 74
Suggested Readings 75
Language Learning Experience: Journal Entry 3 76
For the Teacher: Activities (A) & Discussion (D) 76
Chapter 4 Human Learning 78
Behavioral Perspectives 79
Cognitive Perspectives 82
Learning as Meaningful Storage and Retrieval 83
Systematic Forgetting and Cognitive "Pruning" 85
Cognitive Linguistics 88
Social-Constructivist Perspectives 89
Carl Rogers 89
Paolo Freire 90
Lev Vygotsky 91
Fundamental Concepts in Human Learning 93
Types of Learning 93
Transfer and Interference 94
Overgeneralization 96
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning 97
Language Aptitude 98
Intelligence and Language Learning 101
Learning Theories in the Classroom: ALM & CLL 103
The Audiolingual Method 104
Community Language Learning 104
Suggested Readings 106
Language Learning Experience: Journal Entry 4 107
For the Teacher: Activities (A) & Discussion (D) 108
Chapter 5 Individual Differences 109
Some Historical Background 110
Learning Styles 111
Field Independence and Field Sensitivity 114
Left-Brain and Right-Brain Dominance 116
Ambiguity Tolerance 117
Reflectivity and Impulsivity 119
Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic Styles 120
Measurement of Learning Styles 120
Autonomy and Awareness 121
Self-Regulation 123
Strategies 124
Cognitive Strategies 125
Affective Strategies 126
Sociocultural-Interactive Strategies 126
Compensatory Strategies 128
Research on Learning Strategies 130
Identifying Types of Strategy 130
Cross-Cultural Issues 131
Measuring Strategy Use 131
The Effectiveness of strategy Instruction 132
Strategies-Based Instruction 132
Stimulating Awareness 133
From Awareness to Action 133
From Classroom Action to Autonomy 136
Suggested Readings 138
Language Learning Experience: Journal Entry 5 138
For the Teacher: Activities (A) & Discussion (D) 139
Chapter 6 Affective Factors 141
The Affective Domain 142
Affective Factors in SLA 143
Self-Esteem 144
Attribution Theory and Self-Efficacy 145
Willingness to Communicate 146
Inhibition 147
Risk Taking 149
Anxiety 150
Empathy 153
Extroversion and Introversion 154
Personality Type 156
Motivation 158
Defining Motivation 159
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 160
Social-Psychological Perspectives 162
Instrumental and Integrative Orientations 162
Motivational Intensity 163
Other Orientations 164
Sociodynamic and Constructivist Approaches 164
The Neurobiology of Affect 166
Measuring Affective Factors 167
Classroom Applications: Intrinsic Motivation 169
Suggested Readings 171
Language Learning Experience: Journal Entry 6 171
For the Teacher: Activities (A) & Discussion (D) 172
Chapter 7 Language, Culture, and Identity 174
Defining Culture 174
Cultural Parameters 176
Stereotypes 178
Language, Thought, and Culture 180
Framing Our Conceptual Universe 180
Linguistic Relativity 183
Communities of Practice 184
Identity and Language Learning 185
Historical Landmarks in Cross-Cultural Research 186
Acculturation and Culture Shock 187
Social Distance 188
Attitudes 191
Ideology, Policy, and Politics 191
English as an International Lingua Franca 192
"Second" and "Foreign" Language Acquisition 194
Linguistic Imperialism and Language Rights 195
Language Policy 196
Teaching Intercultural Competence 196
Intercultural Language Learning 198
Classroom Applications: Tips for Teaching Culture 200
Suggested Readings 201
Language Learning Experience: Journal Entry 7 202
For the Teacher: Activities (A) & Discussion (D) 203
Chapter 8 Communicative Competence 205
Defining Communicative Competence 206
BICS and CALP 206
Canale and Swain's Framework 208
Later Modifications of CC Models 209
Language Functions 211
Speech Acts 211
Halliday's Seven Functions of Language 212
Functional Approaches to Language Teaching 214
Interactional Competence 216
Discourse Analysis 217
Conversation Analysis 219
Styles 221
Written Discourse: Intercultural Rhetoric 223
Pragmatics 225
Sociopragmatics and Pragmalinguistics 226
Language and Gender 227
Corpus Analysis 229
Nonverbal Communication 231
Kinesics 232
Eye Contact 233
Facial Expressions 233
Proxemics 233
Artifacts 234
Kinesthetics 234
Olfactory Dimensions 234
Classroom Applications: CLT and Task-Based Language Teaching 235
Communicative Language Teaching 235
Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) 237
Suggested Readings 238
Language Learning Experience: Journal Entry 8 239
For the Teacher: Activities (A) & Discussion (D) 240
Chapter 9 Interlanguage 242
Learner Language 243
Stages of Learner Language Development 244
Variation in Learner Language 246
Learner's Errors: Windows of Opportunity 248
Mistakes versus Errors 249
Error Analysis 250
Identifying and Describing Errors 251
Sources of Difficulty 254
L1 Transfer 254
The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis 254
Cross-Linguistic Influence (CLI) 256
Universals and Markedness 258
Intralingual Transfer 260
Context of Learning 260
Strategies of Communication 262
Input and Frequency 262
Fossilization 264
Error Treatment: Focus on Form 267
Historical Notes 267
Form-Focused Instruction (FFI) 269
Categories of Feedback 271
Types 272
Responses to Feedback 273
Effectiveness of FFI 274
1. Is FFI beneficial? 274
2. When should FonF take place? 274
3. Are certain types of FonF more effective than others? 274
4. Is FFI also effective in improving writing? 275
5. Does frequency make a difference? 275
6. Do some students benefit more than others from FFI? 276
Suggested Readings 276
Language Learning Experience Journal Entry 9 277
For the Teacher: Activities (A) & Discussion (D) 278
Chapter 10 Sorting through Perspectives on SLA 279
Weaving a Tapestry of "Perspectives" on SLA 281
Carlos Yorio's (1976) Learner Variables 282
Patsy Lightbown's (1985) Hypotheses 283
Nick Ellis's (2007) Observed Findings in SLA 285
Principles of Language Learning and Teaching 286
Six Perspectives on SLA 286
Maturation-Based Approaches 288
The Input Hypothesis 288
Criticisms of the Input Hypothesis 289
Universal Grammar (UG) 290
Emergentism 291
Other Related Issues 291
Cognitive Models 292
An Attention-Processing Model 292
Implicit and Explicit Processing 294
Systematicity and Variability 295
Sociocultural Viewpoints 295
Mediation and the ZPD 295
Long's Interaction Hypothesis 296
Social Constructivist Views 297
Identity Approaches 297
Ecological Viewpoints 298
Sociocognitive Approaches 299
Skill Acquisition Theory 300
A Horticultural Metaphor of SLA 300
Dynamic Systems Theory 303
Some Final Comments 305
Theory to Practice or Cooperative Dialogue? 306
The Believing Game and the Doubting Game 307
The Art and Science of SLA 308
The Role of Intuition 308
Suggested Readings 310
Language Learning Experience: Final Journal Entry 310
For the Teacher: Activities (A) & Discussion (D) 311
Bibliography 313
Glossary 369
Name Index 384
Subject Index 391