Preface to the fourth edition xiii
Introduction 1
What is grammar? 1
Grammar and other aspects of language 1
Grammars of English 2
National varieties of English 3
Standard English and non-standard English 3
Variation according to use 4
Descriptive rules and prescriptive rules 5
Why study grammar? 5
How this book is organized 6
Part I The grammar 7
1. The parts of a simple sentence 9
1.1 How we analyse sentences: form and function 9
1.2 Subject, predicate, verb 10
1.3 Operator 10
1.4 Do, be and have 12
1.5 Identifying the subject 13
1.6 Grammatical features of the subject 15
1.7 Transitive verbs and direct object 16
1.8 Linking verbs and subject complement 17
1.9 Intransitive verbs and adverbials 18
1.10 Adverbial complement 19
1.11 Direct object and indirect object 19
1.12 Direct object and object complement 21
1.13 Summary: the basic sentence structures 22
1.14 The meanings of the sentence elements 24
Exercises 27
Advanced exercises 33
2. Word classes 36
2.1 Open and closed classes 36
2.2 Word classes and word uses 37
Nouns 38
2.3 Noun suffixes 38
2.4 Noun classes 38
2.5 Number 40
2.6 Gender 40
2.7 Case 41
2.8 Dependent and independent genitives 41
Main verbs 42
2.9 Verb suffixes 42
2.10 Regular verbs 43
2.11 Irregular verbs 43
Auxiliary verbs 46
2.12 Classes of auxiliaries 46
2.13 The passive auxiliary 46
2.14 The progressive auxiliary 46
2.15 The perfect auxiliary 46
2.16 Auxiliary do 47
2.17 Modal auxiliaries 47
2.18 The meanings of the modals 47
Adjectives 48
2.19 Adjective suffixes 48
2.20 Adjective classes 48
2.21 Gradability and comparison 49
Adverbs 51
2.22 Adverb suffixes 51
2.23 Gradability and comparison 51
Pronouns 51
2.24 Pronoun classes 51
2.25 Personal pronouns 53
2.26 Possessive pronouns 54
2.27 Reflexive pronouns 54
2.28 Demonstrative pronouns 55
2.29 Reciprocal pronouns 56
2.30 Interrogative pronouns 56
2.31 Relative pronouns 56
2.32 Indefinite pronouns and numerals 57
2.33 Pronoun one 58
Determiners 59
2.34 Classes of determiners 59
2.35 Pre-determiners 60
2.36 Central determiners 61
2.37 Post-determiners 61
2.38 The articles and reference 62
Conjunctions 64
2.39 Coordinating conjunctions 64
2.40 Subordinating conjunctions 65
Prepositions 65
2.41 Simple prepositions 65
2.42 Complex prepositions 67
Exercises 67
Advanced exercises 76
3. The structures of phrases 78
3.1 Phrase types 78
The noun phrase 79
3.2 The structure of the noun phrase 79
3.3 Determiners 80
3.4 Modifiers 80
3.5 Relative clauses 81
3.6 Appositive clauses 82
3.7 Apposition 82
3.8 Coordination of noun phrases 83
3.9 Noun phrase complexity 84
3.10 Functions of noun phrases 84
The verb phrase 85
3.11 The structure of the verb phrase 85
3.12 Main verbs 86
3.13 Tense, person, and number 87
3.14 Aspect 88
3.15 Voice 89
3.16 Expressing future time 91
3.17 Vie ordering of auxiliaries 91
3.18 Finite and non-finite verb phrases 93
3.19 Mood 94
3.20 Multi-word verbs 96
The adjective phrase 99
3.21 The structure of the adjective phrase 99
3.22 Functions of adjective phrases 100
The adverb phrase 102
3.23 Tim structure of the adverb phrase 102
3.24 Functions of adverb phrases 102
The prepositional phrase 103
3.25 The structure of the prepositional phrase 103
3.26 Functions of prepositional phrases 105
Exercises 105
Advanced exercises 116
4. Sentences and clauses 121
4.1 What is a sentence? 121
4.2 Irregular sentences and non-sentences 122
4.3 What is a clause? 123
4.4 Sentence types 124
4.5 Declaratives 124
4.6 Interrogatives 125
4.7 Imperatives 126
4.8 Exclamatives 127
4.9 Speech acts 127
4.10 Active and passive sentences 128
4.11 Positive and negative sentences 129
4.12 Compound sentences 130
4.13 Complex sentences and subordinate clauses
4.14 Non-finite and verbless clauses 131
4.15 Functions of subordinate clauses 133
4.16 Sentence complexity 134
4.17 There-structures 135
4.18 Cleft sentences 136
4.19 Anticipatory it 136
Exercises 137
Advanced exercises 143
Part II The applications 145
5. Usage problems
Subject-verb agreement 147
5.1 The general rules 147
5.2 And 148
5.3 Or, nor 149
5.4 With 150
5.5 Collective nouns 150
5.6 Indefinite pronouns 151
5.7 Quantity phrases 152
5.8 Singular nouns ending in -s 153
5.9 Who, which, that 153
5.10 What 154
5.11 There is, there are 154
5.12 Citations and titles 155 Case 155
5.13 Subject complement 155
5.14 Coordinated phrases 155
5.15 After as and than 156
5.16 After but 156
5.17 After let 156
5.18 Who, whom 157
5.19 Case with -ing clauses 157
Auxiliaries and verbs 158
5.20 Problems with auxiliaries 158
5.21 Lie, lay 159
5.22 Present tense 159
5.23 Past and -ed participles 160
5.24 Past and were subjunctive 160
5.25 Multiple negation 161
Adjectives and adverbs 162
5.26 Confusion between adjectives and adverbs 162
5.27 Comparison 163
5.28 Only 164
5.29 Dangling modifiers 164
Exercises 165
Advanced exercises 173
6. Style 175
6.1 Style in writing 175
Emphasis 175
6.2 End-focus 175
6.3 Front-focus 176
6.4 There-structures and cleft sentences 176
6.5 Parenthetic expressions 177
Clarity 177
6.6 End-weight 177
6.7 Misplaced expressions 178
6.8 Abstract nouns 180
6.9 Modifiers in noun phrases 181
6.10 Subordination 181
6.11 Parallelism 182
6.12 Repeated sounds 183
6.13 Pronoun reference 184
Consistency 185
6.14 Pronoun agreement 185
6.15 Tense consistency 185
Exercises 186
Advanced exercises 189
7. English in use 191
71. Register variation 191
7.2 Conversational English 191
7.3 Unscripted monologue 200
7.4 Sports commentary 202
7.5 English in emails and text messages 206
7.6 English in chatrooms, message boards, and tweets 212
7.7 The language of literature 221
Exercises 232
Advanced exercises 237
8. Punctuation 242
8.1 Punctuation rules 242
8.2 Sentence fragments and fragmentary sentences 243
8.3 Run-on sentences and comma splices 245
8.4 Coordinated main clauses 246
8.5 Direct speech 248
8.6 Citations 251
8.7 Questions 252
8.8 Restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses 252
8.9 Restrictive and non-restrictive apposition 254
8.10 Adverbial clauses 256
8.11 Locatives and interjections 258
8.12 Avoiding misunderstanding 258
8.13 Genitives of nouns 258
8.14 Genitives of pronouns 259
Exercises 260
Advanced exercises 266
9. Word formation and spelling 268
9.1 The structure of words 268
9.2 Morphemes 268
9.3 Derivation and inflection 270
9.4 Compounding 272
9.5 Blending and clipping 273
9.6 Acronyms and abbreviations 274
9.7 Combining forms and back formations 274
9.8 Spelling, pronunciation, and meaning 275
9.9 Spelling variants 277
9.10 Spelling rules for short and long vowel sounds 278
9.11 Spelling rules for adding suffixes 279
9.12 Spelling rules for adding prefixes 286
9.13 Other aids to spelling 287
9.14 Homophones: words pronounced similarly 289
Exercises 294
Advanced exercises 299
Glossary 301
Further reading 329
Index 331