Foreword to First Edition xi
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xvii
A Historical Perspective xix
Chapter 1 A Review of Materials Science 1
1.1. Introduction 1
1.2. Structure 2
1.3. Defects in Solids 10
1.4. Bonds and Bands in Materials 14
1.5. Thermodynamics of Materials 24
1.6. Kinetics 36
1.7. Nucleation 44
1.8. An Introduction to Mechanical Behavior 47
1.9. Conclusion 52
Exercises 52
References 55
Chapter 2 Vacuum Science and Technology 57
2.1. Introduction 57
2.2. Kinetic Theory of Gases 58
2.3. Gas Transport and Pumping 63
2.4. Vacuum Pumps 70
2.5. Vacuum Systems 81
2.6. Conclusion 88
Exercises 90
References 92
Chapter 3 Thin-Film Evaporation Processes 95
3.1. Introduction 95
3.2. The Physics and Chemistry of Evaporation 97
3.3. Film Thickness Uniformity and Purity 106
3.4. Evaporation Hardware 118
3.5. Evaporation Processes and Applications 128
3.6. Conclusion 139
Exercises 140
References 143
Chapter 4 Discharges, Plasmas, and Ion-Surface Interactions 145
4.1. Introduction 145
4.2. Plasmas, Discharges, and Arcs 147
4.3. Fundamentals of Plasma Physics 152
4.4. Reactions in Plasmas 164
4.5. Physics of Sputtering 170
4.6. Ion Bombardment Modification of Growing Films 184
4.7. Conclusion 196
Exercises 198
References 201
Chapter 5 Plasma and Ion Beam Processing of Thin Films 203
5.1. Introduction 203
5.2. DC, AC, and Reactive Sputtering Processes 205
5.3. Magnetron Sputtering 222
5.4. Plasma Etching 233
5.5. Hybrid and Modified PVD Processes 252
5.6. Conclusion 269
Exercises 270
References 273
Chapter 6 Chemical Vapor Deposition 277
6.1. Introduction 277
6.2. Reaction Types 281
6.3. Thermodynamics of CVD 287
6.4. Gas Transport 293
6.5. Film Growth Kinetics 303
6.6. Thermal CVD Processes 312
6.7. Plasma-Enhanced CVD Processes 323
6.8. Some CVD Materials Issues 334
6.9. Safety 347
6.10. Conclusion 349
Exercises 350
References 353
Chapter 7 Substrate Surfaces and Thin-Film Nucleation 357
7.1. Introduction 357
7.2. An Atomic View of Substrate Surfaces 360
7.3. Thermodynamic Aspects of Nucleation 376
7.4. Kinetic Processes in Nucleation and Growth 386
7.5. Experimental Studies of Nucleation and Growth 400
7.6. Conclusion 409
Exercises 410
References 414
Chapter 8 Epitaxy 417
8.1. Introduction 417
8.2. Manifestations of Epitaxy 420
8.3. Lattice Misfit and Defects in Epitaxial Films 429
8.4. Epitaxy of Compound Semiconductors 439
8.5. High-Temperature Methods for Depositing Epitaxial Semiconductor Films 453
8.6. Low-Temperature Methods for Depositing Epitaxial Semiconductor Films 466
8.7. Mechanisms and Characterization of Epitaxial Film Growth 476
8.8. Conclusion 488
Exercises 489
References 492
Chapter 9 Film Structure 495
9.1. Introduction 495
9.2. Structural Morphology of Deposited Films and Coatings 497
9.3. Computational Simulations of Film Structure 510
9.4. Grain Growth, Texture, and Microstructure Control in Thin Films 520
9.5. Constrained Film Structures 533
9.6. Amorphous Thin Films 540
9.7. Conclusion 552
Exercises 553
References 556
Chapter 10 Characterization of Thin Films and Surfaces 559
10.1. Introduction 559
10.2. Film Thickness 562
10.3. Structural Characterization of Films and Surfaces 583
10.4. Chemical Characterization of Surfaces and Films 606
10.5. Conclusion 633
Exercises 635
References 639
Chapter 11 Interdiffusion, Reactions, and Transformations in Thin Films 641
11.1. Introduction 641
11.2. Fundamentals of Diffusion 643
11.3. Interdiffusion in Thin Metal Films 659
11.4. Compound Formation and Phase Transformations in Thin Films 669
11.5. Metal-Semiconductor Reactions 682
11.6. Mass Transport in Thin Films under Large Driving Forces 695
11.7. Conclusion 704
Exercises 704
References 708
Chapter 12 Mechanical Properties of Thin Films 711
12.1. Introduction 711
12.2. Mechanical Testing and Strength of Thin Films 713
12.3. Analysis of Internal Stress 723
12.4. Techniques for Measuring Internal Stress in Films 735
12.5. Internal Stresses in Thin Films and Their Causes 742
12.6. Mechanical Relaxation Effects in Stressed Films 754
12.7. Adhesion 764
12.8. Conclusion 775
Exercises 776
References 779
Index 783