Chapter 1 Syntax

Preliminaries16
1.1. Grammar & Syntax 16
1.2. Syntax as Science - The Scientific Method 18
1.3. Function: Subject and Predicate 19
1.4. Form 19
1.5. Function-Form Relationships 20
1.6. The structure of English 23
1.7. Transformational Generative Grammar 26
1.8. Deep and Surface Structure 27
1.9. More on tree diagrams 28
1.10. C-command 30

Predicates, Arguments and Thematic Roles32
2.1. Predicates and arguments 32
2.2. Thematic roles 35
2.3. Grammatical functions and thematic roles 38
2.4. Thematic relations - Andrew Radford 39
2.5. Subcategorisation 41
2.6. Selectional restrictions 44

X-Bar Syntax: Cross-Categorial Generalisations45
3.1. Heads, Complements and Specifiers 45
3.2. Adjuncts 53
3.3. Cross-categorial generalisations 61
3.4. Complements vs. Adjuncts: Extraposition (Postposing) 61
3.5. Complements vs. Adjuncts: Preposing 62
3.6. The differences between Complements and Adjuncts 62

Clauses & Movement65
4.1. The I-node 65
4.2. Affix Movement vs. V Movement 70
4.3. I MOVEMENT 76
4.4. Wh-Movement 80
4.5. NP-Movement: passive 82
4.6. NP-Movement: Subject-to-Subject Raising 88

Constituency91
5.1. The Movement Test 92
5.2. Substitution (Replacement) 100
5.3. The Coordination Test 109
5.4. The Cleft and Pseudocleft Test 111
5.5. The Insertion Test 113
5.6. Sentence Fragment Test (The Constituent Response Test/Stand-alone Test) 114

Verb Complements116
6.1. Believe Type: believe + NP + to-infinitive 117
6.2. Persuade Type: persuade + NP + to-infinitive 121
6.3. Want Type: want + NP + to-infinitive 122
6.4. Summary 124

Raising and Control Constructions125
7.1. Raising and Control Predicates 125
7.2. Differences between Raising and Control Verbs 126

Control Theory133
8.1. Introduction 133
8.2. Obligatory and Nonobligatory Control 133
8.3. Restrictions on the Controller 135

Binding Theory138
9.1. The Basic Concepts of Binding Theory 138
9.2. The Notions Coindex and Antecedent 139
9.3. Binding 140
9.4. Locality Conditions on the Binding of Anaphors 142
9.5. The Distribution of Pronouns 143
9.6. The Distribution of R-Expressions 144

Case Theory146
10.1. Morphological Case and Abstract Case 146
10.2. Complements: ACCUSATIVE [V and P as Case Assigners] 147
10.3. Subjects: NOMINATIVE and ACCUSATIVE 148
10.4. Exceptional Case-marking 150
10.5. Adjectives and Nouns: Of-insertion 151
10.6. Adjacency and Case Assignment 153
10.7. Case and Passivization 154
10.8. The Double Object Construction 156
10.9. Movement and Chains 156
10.10. Summary 157

Prepositional Verbs and Phrasal Verbs159
11.1. Structural differences between prepositional verb and phrasal verb 159

Tough-Movement & Raising Sentences167
12.1. Tough Movement Sentences 167
12.2. Subject Raising Sentences 168
12.3. Sentences That Look like Tough Movement or Subject Raising Structures 170

Trace172
13.1. WANNA Contraction 172
13.2. HAVE Contraction 173

Complementizers175
14.1. Complementisers 175
15. Ambiguity 177
15.1. Ambiguity 177
15.2. Lexical and structural ambiguity 179

Chapter 2 Grammar

The Semantics of the verb phrase186
1.1. Stative and dynamic senses of verbs 186
1.2. Simple past tense for past time 187
1.3. The present perfect 187

Modal Auxiliaries189
2.1. The epistemic vs deontic contrast 189
2.2. Dynamic interpretations 190

Determiners192
3.1. Order of Determiners in Noun Phrases 192
3.2. Genitive meanings 193
3.3. The grammatical status of the genitive 194

Negation196
4.1. Negative/Positive Polarity Items 196
4.2. Syntactic features of clause negation 197
4.3. Tag Questions (Reversed polarity tag questions) 197
4.4. The types of negation 198
4.5. Changes in the Relative Scope of Negation 199
4.6. Negative Constituents and C-command: Syntactic Restrictions 199

Nonreferential There201
5.1. Thematic roles and dummy elements 201
5.2. Nonreferential There 201

Passive Sentences204
6.1. Semantic Constraints on Using The Passive 204
6.2. PASSIVE LOOK-ALIKES: Pseudo-Passive/Stative Passive 205
6.3. Get Passive Look-Alikes 206

Relative Clauses209
7.1. Restrictive Versus Nonrestrictive Relative Clauses 209
7.2 Form Criteria Distinguishing Nonrestrictive and Restrictive Relative Clauses 210

Coordination212
8.1. Combinatory and segregatory coordination of noun phrases 212
8.2. Indicators of segregatory meaning 213
8.3. Coordination within noun phrases 214

Verb Complementation216
9.1. Clause Types 216
9.2. Indirect object and to-infinitive clause object 216
9.3. Infinitival complementation: monotransitive, ditransitive, complex-transitive 217

Multiword Verbs220
10.1. Introduction 220
10.2. PHRASAL VERBS 220
10.3. PREPOSITIONAL VERBS 223
10.4. PHRASAL PREPOSITIONAL VERBS 223
10.5. The distinction between prepositional verbs and phrasal verbs 224
10.6. Type II prepositional verbs (Ditranstive): Passivization 225

Adjectives227
11.1. Ordering of adjectives in premodification 227
11.2. Adjectives and participles 228
11.3. Semantic subclassification of adjectives 229
11.4. The unmarked term in measure expressions 230

Adverbials: The Grammatical Functions of Adverbials232
12.1. Subjuncts 232
12.2. Disjuncts 234

Aspect237
13.1. Introduction 237
13.2. Four Basic Aspectual Classes 237
13.3. Rules concerning Aspectual Adverbial Phrases 239
13.4. In adverbials 242

Pronoun245
14.1. The reflexives 245
14.2. Specific reference 247

Focus248
15.1. Dislocation 248
15.2. Extraposition is not right dislocation 249
15.3. Preposing and Postposing 250

Chapter 3 Phonetics and Phonology

Phonetics (1)：Consonants254
1.1. Voiced and Voiceless Sounds 255
1.2. Place of Articulation 255
1.3. Manner of Articulation 258
1.4. Phonetic Classes of Consonants 260

Phonetics (2)：Vowels267
2.1. Tongue Height, Tongue Position, and Lip Roundness 268
2.2. Tense and Lax Vowels 268
2.3. Schwa 269
2.4. Monophthongs and Diphthongs 270
2.5. Oral Vowels and Nasalized Vowels 270
2.6. Syllable 270

Phonemes and their Allophones274
3.1. Phonemic Analysis: Sounds that are the same but different 275
3.2. Phonemes: The Phonological Units of Language 276
3.3. Phonemes and How to Find Them 278

Distinctive and Nondistinctive Features285
4.1. Major Phonetic Classes 287
4.2. Phonemic Classes of English Phonemes 289
4.3. Distinctive Features of English Consonants 290
4.4. Distinctive Features of English Vowels 293
4.5. Nondistinctive Features 294
4.6. Natural Classes of Speech Sounds 294

Syllables and Syllabification295
5.1. Syllable Structure 299
5.2. Sonority 303
5.3. Syllabification 305
5.4. Syllable Weight and Ambisyllabicity 306

Phonological Rules312
6.1. The Function of Phonological Rules 313
6.2. Allophonic Rules (1)：Assimilation 314
6.3. Allophonic Rules (2)：Dissimilation 320
6.4. Allophonic Rules (3)：Segment Deletion 321
6.5. Allophonic Rules (4)：Segment Insertion 326
6.6. Morphophonemic Rules 327
6.7. Neutralization 331
6.8. Consonant Cluster Simplification 335
6.9. Vowel Deletion and Normally Impermissible Clusters 336
6.10. Metathesis 336

Suprasegmental Phonology: Introduction341
7.1. Prosody 341
7.2. Prosodic Features 342
7.3. Stress: Introduction 343
7.4. Word Stress 344
7.5. Sentence and Phrase Stress 345
7.6. The Rhythm of English 346

Phonotactics350
8.1. Single onsets 351
8.2. Single Codas 351
8.3. Double onsets 352
8.4. Sonority Sequencing Principle (SSP) 355
8.5. Triple onsets 356
8.6. Double codas 357
8.7. Triple codas 361

General Stress Patterns366
9.1. Noun and Adjective Stress 367
9.2. Verb Stress 369
9.3. English Stress and Affixes 372
9.4. Secondary Stress 375
9.5. More on the Trochaic Metrical Foot 376
9.6. Representing Metrical Structure 376
9.7. The Rhythm of English: Stress Timing and Eurhythmy 378

Intonation384
10.1. Intonation Patterns 385
10.2. Sentence Types and their Unmarked and Marked Intonation Patterns 391

Chapter 4 Morphology

Words and Morphemes396
1.1. Words 400
1.2. Morphemes 404
1.3. Affixes 405
1.4. Roots and Stems 410

Word Formation Rules and Word Structure415
2.1. Derivational Morphology 415
2.2. Inflectional Morphology 420
2.3. Morphological Structure：Hierarchical Structure of Words 422
2.4. Rule Productivity 424
2.5. Exceptions to Word Formation Rules 425
2.6. Structurally Ambiguous Words 425

Morphological Processes429
3.1. Compounding 430
3.2. Back-Formation 432
3.3. Conversion, Function Shift, Zero Derivation 433
3.4. Affixation 434
3.5. Clipping 435
3.6. Blending 435
3.7. Acronym and Alphabetic Abbreviation 435
3.8. Word Coinage 436

Morphological Analysis439

Chapter 5 Semantics

Lexical Semantics444
1.1. Reference and Sense 445
1.2. Lexical Semantic Relations 445
1.3. Semantic Features 451
1.4. Broadening and Narrowing of Meaning in Language Change 454
1.5. Overextension and Underextension of Meaning in Language Acquisition 455

Ambiguity460
2.1. Lexical Ambiguity 461
2.2. Structural Ambiguity 463
2.3. Referential Ambiguity 467
2.4. Scope Ambiguity 468
2.5. TransformationallyInducedAmbiguity 469

Noncompositional Meaning471
3.1. Anomaly 471
3.2. Metaphor 472
3.3. Idioms 473

Event Semantics477
4.1. Events and States 477
4.2. Telic and Atelic 478

Sentential Semantics (1)： Truth-Conditional Semantics483
5.1. Introduction to Truth-Conditional Semantics 483
5.2. Factive Predicates 488
5.3. Implicative Predicates 490

Sentential Semantics (2)： Compositional Semantics499
6.1. Syntactic Rules and Semantic Rules 499
6.2. Semantic Rules 500

Chapter 6 Pragmatics

Semantics and Pragmatics508
1.1. Deixis 509
1.2. Presupposition in Pragmatics 511

Maxims of Conversation515
2.1. Grice's Maxims 515
2.2. Implicature 516

Speech Acts523

Discourse Analysis 529
4.1. Cohesion and Coherence 530
4.2. Background Knowledge: Schemata and Scripts 532

Chapter 7 Sociolinguistics

Language in Use (1)538
1.1. Introduction to Socioliguistics 538
1.2. Styles or Registers 540
1.3. Slang 541
1.4. Jargon and Argot 541

Language in Use (2)544
2.1. Taboo 544
2.2. Euphemisms