Acknowledgements xi
Preface to the fourth edition xiii
Introduction 1
Before we begin… 2
1. Language learning in early childhood 5
Preview 5
First language acquisition 5
The first three years: Milestones and developmental sequences 6
The pre-school years 12
The school years 13
Explaining first language acquisition 14
The behaviourist perspective 15
The innatist perspective 20
Interactionist/developmental perspectives 24
Language disorders and delays 29
Childhood bilingualism 30
Summary 33
Suggestions for further reading 34
2. Second language learning 35
Preview 35
Learner characteristics 36
Learning conditions 38
Studying the language of second language learners 40
Contrastive analysis, error analysis, and interlanguage 41
Developmental sequences 45
More about first language influence 57
Vocabulary 60
Pragmatics 65
Phonology 68
Sampling learners' language 72
Summary 72
Suggestions for further reading 73
3. Individual differences in second language learning 75
Preview 75
Research on learner characteristics 77
Intelligence 79
Language learning aptitude 80
Learning styles 83
Personality 84
Attitudes and motivation 87
Motivation in the classroom 88
Identity and ethnic group affiliation 89
Learner beliefs 90
Individual differences and classroom instruction 92
Age and second language learning 92
The critical period: More than just pronunciation? 94
Intuitions of grammaticality 95
Rate of learning 96
Age and second language instruction 96
Summary 99
Suggestions for further reading 100
4. Explaining second language learning 103
Preview 103
The behaviourist perspective 103
Second language applications: Mimicry and memorization 103
The innatist perspective 104
Second language applications: Krashen’s 'Monitor Model' 106
The cognitive perspective 108
Information processing 108
Usage-based learning 110
The competition model 111
Language and the brain 113
Second language applications: Interacting, noticing, processing, and practising 113
The sociocultural perspective 118
Second language applications: Learning by talking 119
Summary 120
Suggestions for further reading 121
5. Observing learning and teaching in the second language classroom 123
Preview 123
Natural and instructional settings 123
In natural acquisition settings 124
In structure-based instructional settings 126
In communicative instructional settings 127
Observation schemes 129
Classroom comparisons: Teacher-student interactions 129
Classroom comparisons: Student-student interactions 135
Corrective feedback in the classroom 139
Questions in the classroom 145
Ethnography 149
Summary 151
Suggestions for further reading 152
6. Second language learning in the classroom 153
Preview 153
Proposals for teaching 153
1. Get it right from the beginning 154
2. Just listen … and read 159
3. Let's talk 165
4. Get two for one 171
5. Teach what is teachable 177
6. Get it right in the end 182
Assessing the proposals 194
Summary 197
Suggestions for further reading 198
7. Popular ideas about language learning revisited 201
Preview 201
Reflecting on the popular ideas: Learning from research 201
Conclusion 212
Glossary 213
Bibliography 227
Index 249