List of Illustrations xi
1. Introduction: The Hidden History of Rules 1
Clues to a Hidden History 1
Rules as Both Paradigms and Algorithms 5
Universals and Particulars 15
A History of the Self-Evident 20
2. Ancient Rules: Straightedges, Models, and Laws 23
Three Semantic Clusters 23
The Rule Is the Abbot 31
Following Models 40
Conclusion: Rules between Science and Craft 45
3. The Rules of Art: Head and Hand United 48
The Understanding Hand 48
Thick Rules 56
Rules at War 63
Cookbook Knowledge 70
Conclusion: Back and Forth, Betwixt and Between 76
4. Algorithms before Mechanical Calculation 82
The Classroom 82
What Was an Algorithm? 85
Generality without Algebra 94
Computing before Computers 106
Conclusion: Thin Rules 117
5. Algorithmic Intelligence in the Age of Calculating Machines 122
Mechanical Rule-Following: Babbage versus Wittgenstein 122
"First Organize, Then Mechanize": The Human-Machine Workflow 127
Mechanical Mindfulness 135
Algorithms and Intelligence 142
Conclusion: From Mechanical to Artificial Intelligence 147
6. Rules and Regulations 151
Laws, Rules, and Regulations 151
Five Hundred Years of Rule Failure: The War on Fashion 155
Rules for an Unruly City: Policing the Streets of Enlightenment Paris 169
Rules that Succeed Too Well: How and How Not to Spell 188
Conclusion: From Rules to Norms 207
7. Natural Laws and Laws of Nature 212
The Grandest Rules of All 212
Natural Law 215
Laws of Nature 225
Conclusion: Universal Legality 233
8. Bending and Breaking Rules 238
At the Limit 238
Casuistry: Hard Cases and Tender Consciences 242
Equity: When the Law Commits Injustice 248
Prerogative and States of Exception: Rulers and the Rule of Law 255
Conclusion: Which Came First, the Rule or the Exception? 265
Epilogue: More Honored in the Breach 268
Acknowledgments 275
Notes 279
Bibliography 321
Index 349