Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xiv
About the Authors xiv
Introduction: The Five-Step Program xv
Step 1 Set Up Your Study Program
1. What You Need to Know About the AP Chemistry Exam 3
Background of the Advanced Placement Program 3
Who Writes the AP Chemistry Exam? 4
The AP Grades and Who Receives Them 4
Reasons for Taking the AP Chemistry Exam 4
Questions Frequently Asked About the AP Chemistry Exam 5
2. How to Plan Your Time 11
Three Approaches to Preparing for the AP Chemistry Exam 11
Calendar for Each Plan 14
Step 2 Determine Your Test Readiness
3. Take a Diagnostic Exam 19
Getting Started: The Diagnostic Exam 20
AP Chemistry Final Practice Exam, Section I (Multiple Choice) 21
Answers and Explanations for Final Practice Exam, Section I (Multiple Choice) 34
AP Chemistry Final Practice Exam, Section II (Free Response) 41
Answers and Explanations for Final Practice Exam, Section II (Free Response) 47
Scoring and Interpretation 56
Step 3 Develop Strategies for Success
4. How to Approach Each Question Type 59
Multiple-Choice Questions 59
Free-Response Questions 62
Step 4 Review the Knowledge You Need to Score High
5. Basics 69
Units and Measurements 70
Dimensional Analysis-the Factor Label Method 71
The States of Matter 72
Phase Diagrams 73
The Structure of the Atom 74
Oxidation Numbers 82
Nomenclature Overview 83
Experiments 89
Common Mistakes to Avoid 89
Review Questions 90
Answers and Explanations 92
Free-Response Question 94
Answer and Explanation 94
Rapid Review 95
6. Stoichiometry 97
Moles and Molar Mass 98
Percent Composition and Empirical Formulas 98
Introduction to Reactions 100
Reaction Stoichiometry 100
Limiting Reactants 102
Percent Yield 103
Molarity and Solution Calculations 104
Experiments 104
Common Mistakes to Avoid 105
Review Questions 105
Answers and Explanations 108
Free-Response Question 112
Answer and Explanation 113
Rapid Review 114
7. Spectroscopy, Light, and Electrons 117
The Nature of Light 118
Spectroscopy and the Electromagnetic Spectrum 119
Beer-Lambert Law 120
Wave Properties of Matter 121
Atomic Spectra 121
Atomic Orbitals 122
Photoelectron (Photoemission) Spectroscopy (PES) 124
Experiments 124
Common Mistakes to Avoid 124
Review Questions 125
Answers and Explanations 127
Free-Response Question 128
Answer and Explanation 129
Rapid Review 130
8. Bonding 131
Lewis Electron-Dot Structures 132
Ionic and Covalent Bonding 132
Molecular Geometry-VSEPR 136
Valence Bond Theory 139
Molecular Orbital Theory 140
Resonance 142
Bond Length, Strength, and Magnetic Properties 143
Structure of Metals and Alloys 143
Experiments 145
Common Mistakes to Avoid 145
Review Questions 146
Answers and Explanations 148
Free-Response Question 149
Answer and Explanation 150
Rapid Review 151
9. Solids, Liquids, and Intermolecular Forces 153
Intramolecular and Intermolecular Forces 154
The Liquid State 159
The Solid State 159
Relationship of Intermolecular Forces to Phase Changes 162
Potential Energy 162
Experiments 163
Common Mistakes to Avoid 163
Review Questions 163
Answers and Explanations 166
Free-Response Question 168
Answer and Explanation 168
Rapid Review 169
10. Gases 171
Kinetic Molecular Theory 172
Gas Law Relationships 173
Experiments 183
Common Mistakes to Avoid 185
Review Questions 186
Answers and Explanations 188
Free-Response Question 190
Answer and Explanation 191
Rapid Review 192
11. Solutions 193
Concentration Units 194
Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes 196
Colligative Properties 197
Colloids 199
Composition of Mixtures 200
Separation of Solutions and Mixtures Chromatography 201
Experiments 202
Common Mistakes to Avoid 203
Review Questions 203
Answers and Explanations 206
Free-Response Questions 208
Answers and Explanations 209
Rapid Review 209
12. Reactions and Periodicity 211
AP Exam Format 212
General Aspects of Chemical Reactions and Equations 212
General Properties of Aqueous Solutions 214
Precipitation Reactions 215
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 216
Coordination Compounds 220
Acid-Base Reactions 221
Experiments 225
Common Mistakes to Avoid 225
Review Questions 226
Answers and Explanations 228
Free-Response Question 230
Answer and Explanation 231
Rapid Review 231
13. Kinetics 233
How Reactions Occur-Collision Model 234
Rates of Reaction 235
Integrated Rate Laws 238
Reaction Energy Profile 240
Activation Energy 241
Reaction Mechanisms 241
Steady-State Approximation 242
Multistep Reaction Energy Profile 242
Catalysts 242
Experiments 244
Common Mistakes to Avoid 244
Review Questions 245
Answers and Explanations 248
Free-Response Question 250
Answer and Explanation 251
Rapid Review 252
14. Thermodynamics 255
Energy Diagrams 256
Heat Transfer and Thermal Equilibrium 256
Calorimetry 257
Energy of Phase Changes 259
Introduction to Enthalpy of Reaction 260
Bond Enthalpies 261
Laws of Thermodynamics 262
Hess's Law 262
Enthalpies of Formation 264
Thermodynamics and Equilibrium 267
Thermodynamic and Kinetic Control 267
Coupled Reactions 267
Experiments 268
Common Mistakes to Avoid 268
Review Questions 269
Answers and Explanations 272
Free-Response Question 274
Answer and Explanation 274
Rapid Review 275
15. Equilibrium 277
Equilibrium Expressions 279
Magnitude of the Equilibrium Constant 279
Properties of the Equilibrium Constant 280
Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations 281
Representations of Equilibrium 283
Le Chatelier's Principle 284
Solubility Equilibria 287
Common-Ion Effect 289
pH and Solubility 289
Free Energy of Dissolution 290
Other Equilibria 291
Experiments 291
Common Mistakes to Avoid 291
Review Questions 292
Answers and Explanations 294
Free-Response Question 297
Answer and Explanation 298
Rapid Review 300
16. Acids and Bases 301
Acid-Base Equilibrium 302
K a-the Acid Dissociation Constant 304
K w-the Water Dissociation Constant 305
Molecular Structure of Acids and Bases 306
pH 307
K b-the Base Dissociation Constant 308
Acidic/Basic Properties of Salts 310
Buffers 311
Acid-Base Reactions and Buffers 313
Titration Equilibria 314
Experiments 319
Common Mistakes to Avoid 319
Review Questions 320
Answers and Explanations 323
Free-Response Question 325
Answer and Explanation 326
Rapid Review 326
17. Electrochemistry 329
Redox Reactions 330
Electrochemical Cells 330
Quantitative Aspects of Electrochemistry 337
Nernst Equation 338
Electrolysis and Faraday's Law 340
Experiments 340
Common Mistakes to Avoid 340
Review Questions 341
Answers and Explanations 344
Free-Response Question 346
Answer and Explanation 346
Rapid Review 347
Additional Review and Applications
18. Nuclear Chemistry 351
Nuclear Reactions 352
Natural Radioactive Decay Modes 352
Nuclear Stability 354
Nuclear Decay Calculations 354
Mass-Energy Relationships 355
Common Mistakes to Avoid 356
Review Questions 356
Answers and Explanations 358
Free-Response Question 358
Answer and Explanation 359
Rapid Review 360
19. Organic Chemistry 361
Hydrocarbons 362
Structural Isomerism 362
Common Functional Groups 363
Acid-Base Chemistry 363
Experiments 365
Common Mistakes to Avoid 366
Review Questions 366
Answers and Explanations 367
Free-Response Questions 368
Answers and Explanations 368
Rapid Review 370
20. Experimental Investigations 371
Experiment 1: Spectroscopy 372
Experiment 2: Spectrophotometry 375
Experiment 3: Gravimetric Analysis 376
Experiment 4: Titration 377
Experiment 5: Chromatography 379
Experiment 6: Determination of the Type of Bonding in Solid Samples 380
Experiment 7: Stoichiometry 380
Experiment 8: Redox Titration 381
Experiment 9: Chemical and Physical Changes 383
Experiment 10: Kinetics 383
Experiment 11: Rate Laws 384
Experiment 12: Calorimetry 385
Experiment 13: Chemical Equilibrium-Le Chatelier's Principle 386
Experiment 14: Acid-Base Titrations 387
Experiment 15: Buffer pH 387
Experiment 16: The Capacity of a Buffer 388
Common Mistakes to Avoid 389
Review Questions 389
Answers and Explanations 393
Free-Response Questions 396
Answers and Explanations 399
Rapid Review 406
Step 5 Build Your Test-Taking Confidence
AP Chemistry Practice Exam 1 411
AP Chemistry Practice Exam 1, Section I (Multiple Choice) 413
Answers and Explanations for Exam 1, Section I (Multiple Choice) 426
AP Chemistry Practice Exam 1, Section II (Free Response) 432
Answers and Explanations for Exam 1, Section II (Free Response) 438
AP Chemistry Practice Exam 2 445
AP Chemistry Practice Exam 2, Section I (Multiple Choice) 447
Answers and Explanations for Exam 2, Section I (Multiple Choice) 459
AP Chemistry Practice Exam 2, Section II (Free Response) 465
Answers and Explanations for Exam 2, Section II (Free Response) 469
Appendixes
Pre-AP Diagnostic Exam 479
SI Units 499
Balancing Redox Equations Using the Ion-Electron Method 501
Common Ions 505
Bibliography 508
Websites 508
Glossary 509
Avoiding "Stupid" Mistakes on the Free-Response Section 518
Exam Resources 521