How to Use This Book ix
Barron's Essential 5 x
Questions Commonly Asked About the APES Exam xi
1. The Living World: Ecosystems 1
1.1 Introduction to Ecosystems 1
1.2 Terrestrial Biomes 4
1.3 Aquatic Biomes 23
1.4 The Carbon Cycle 39
1.5 The Nitrogen Cycle 42
1.6 The Phosphorus Cycle 45
1.7 The Hydrologic (Water) Cycle 46
1.8 Primary Productivity 52
1.9 Trophic Levels 52
1.10 Energy Flow and the 10% Rule 54
1.11 Food Chains and Food Webs 59
Practice Questions 60
Answer Explanations 71
2. The Living World: Biodiversity 77
2.1 Introduction to Biodiversity 77
2.2 Ecosystem Services 81
2.3 Island Biogeography 82
2.4 Ecological Tolerance 84
2.5 Natural Disruptions to Ecosystems 84
2.6 Adaptations 86
2.7 Ecological Succession 87
Practice Questions 92
Answer Explanations 101
3. Populations 109
3.1 Generalist and Specialist Species 109
3.2 K-Selected and r-Selected Species 109
3.3 Survivorship Curves 110
3.4 Carrying Capacity 111
3.5 Population Growth and Resource Availability 112
3.6 Age-Structure Diagrams 121
3.7 Total Fertility Rate 122
3.8 Human Population Dynamics 124
3.9 Demographic Transition 126
Practice Questions 128
Answer Explanations 136
4. Earth Systems and Resources 141
4.1 Plate Tectonics 141
4.2 Soil Formation and Erosion 144
4.3 Soil Composition and Properties 147
4.4 Earth's Atmosphere 150
4.5 Global Wind Patterns 157
4.6 Watershed 165
4.7 Solar Radiation and Earth's Seasons 166
4.8 Earth's Geography and Climate 167
4.9 El Nino and La Nina 169
Practice Questions 174
Answer Explanations 182
5. Land and Water Use 193
5.1 "The Tragedy of the Commons" 193
5.2 Clear-Cutting 194
5.3 The Agricultural and Green Revolutions 196
5.4 Impacts of Agricultural Practices 197
5.5 Irrigation Methods 203
5.6 Pest-Control Methods 205
5.7 Meat Production Methods 208
5.8 Impacts of Overfishing 209
5.9 Impacts of Mining 210
5.10 Impacts of Urbanization 213
5.11 Urban Runoff and Methods to Reduce It 216
5.12 Ecological Footprints 216
5.13 Introduction to Sustainability 217
5.14 Sustainable Agriculture 218
Practice Questions 220
Answer Explanations 225
6. Energy Resources and Consumption 231
6.1 Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources 236
6.2 Global Energy Consumption 237
6.3 Fuel Types and Uses 238
6.4 Distribution of Renewable Energy Resources 247
6.5 Fossil Fuels 247
6.6 Nuclear Power 252
6.7 Energy from Biomass 256
6.8 Solar Energy 258
6.9 Hydroelectric Power 261
6.10 Geothermal Energy 262
6.11 Hydrogen Fuel Cells 263
6.12 Wind Energy 264
6.13 Energy Conservation 266
Practice Questions 270
Answer Explanations 277
7. Atmospheric Pollution 283
7.1 Introduction to Air Pollution 283
7.2 Atmospheric CO 2 and Particulates 285
7.3 Photochemical Smog 289
7.4 Thermal (Temperature) Inversion 290
7.5 Outdoor vs. Indoor Air Pollutants 291
7.6 Reduction of Air Pollutants 294
7.7 Acid Rain (Deposition) 295
7.8 Noise Pollution 298
Practice Questions 299
Answer Explanations 309
8. Aquatic and Terrestrial Pollution 315
8.1 Sources of Pollution 315
8.2 Human Impacts on Ecosystems 316
8.3 Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) 323
8.4 Endocrine Disruptors 328
8.5 Human Impacts on Wetlands and Mangroves 328
8.6 Even More on Thermal Pollution 329
8.7 Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification 330
8.8 Solid Waste Disposal 331
8.9 Waste Reduction Methods 339
8.10 Sewage Treatment 342
8.11 Lethal Dose 50% (LD 50 ) 345
8.12 Dose-Response Curve 345
8.13 Pollution and Human Health 346
8.14 Pathogens and Infectious Diseases 347
Practice Questions 351
Answer Explanations 357
9. Global Change 363
9.1 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion 363
9.2 Reducing Ozone Depletion 366
9.3 The Greenhouse Effect 366
9.4 Increases in Greenhouse Gases 367
9.5 Global Climate Change 372
9.6 Ocean Warming 380
9.7 Ocean Acidification 381
9.8 Biodiversity and Invasive Species 382
9.9 Endangered Species 384
9.10 Human Impacts on Biodiversity 386
Practice Questions 387
Answer Explanations 392
Practice Tests
Practice Test 1: 403
Answer Explanations 447
Practice Test 2: 477
Answer Explanations 520
Index 547